Climate Resilience and Environmental Sustainability Approaches

This chapter reviews the progress in regional climate downscaling simulations (RCDS) over Southeast Asia, both at country and regional levels. The need to advance RCDS stems from the fact that robust climate change projections are needed in decision-making processes involved in adopting climate-resilient pathways, wherein adaptation, mitigation, and sustainable development aspects must also be considered. At the country level, notable variation in the progress in RCDS among countries in Southeast Asia exists wherein some countries have not conducted any RCDS, while others show some levels of activities in both dynamical and statistical downscaling. At the regional level, RCDS activities are also limited. However, the establishment of the Coordinated Regional Climate Downscaling Experiment (CORDEX) Southeast Asia (CORDEX-SEA) and the completion of high-resolution multi-model simulations are game changers. Furthermore, through the establishment of the Southeast Asia Regional Climate Change Information System (SARCCIS), a data portal where CORDEX-SEA simulation outputs are archived and linked to the Earth System Grid Federation (ESGF) for worldwide accessibility, the availability of robust climate change projections is expected to spur the research and development activities in the vulnerability, impact, and adaptation aspects in the region. Lastly, the remaining challenges, such as on bias and uncertainties, are discussed, which indicate the way forward concerning RCDS in Southeast Asia.

Antarctica is an isolated dome-shaped icy continent surrounded by the stormiest oceans in the world. It holds the world’s most efficiently coupled ocean-ice-air-radiation system that is responsible for its sustenance and growth. However, global warming is knocking at the periphery of Antarctica and the Southern Ocean around it, leading to melting of polar ice. This is a matter of great concern as the resulting sea level rise will have a direct impact on human endeavors in almost all the coastal countries.

The Indian Antarctic station Maitri (70.7666S, 11.7314E) is located over a small rocky region (35 sq. km area) in the Schirmacher Oasis, situated along the periphery of East Antarctic region. Schirmacher Oasis consists of exposed weathered rocks in the forms of hilly undulations formed due to receding polar glaciers. Due to weathering of rocks over thousands of years, many lakes and ponds have formed over this oasis and it offers a convenient site to understand various processes that may help in taking steps to minimize the impact of global warming in Antarctica.

The basic idea behind Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Degradation (REDD) pertains to countries that are willing and able to reduce emissions from deforestation and should be financially compensated for doing so. Previous approaches to curb global deforestation have so far been unsuccessful. However, REDD provides a new framework to allow deforesting countries to break this historical trend. The “+” in REDD+ has drawn increasing attention towards the activities related to the conservation and enhancement of carbon stocks. A future REDD mechanism has the potential for implementing the Sustainable Forest Management (SFM) concept. REDD could simultaneously address climate change and rural poverty, while conserving biodiversity and sustaining vital ecosystem services. Green India Mission has various components to ensure support for REDD+ strategy.

In India, there are around 300 million forest dependent people including around 87 million tribals who derive their livelihood and a substantial part of their income from forests. Joint Forest Management (JFM), a partnership between local communities and the Forest Department started in India in the nineties has been a successful model under the “Care and Share” principle. India is world’s 4th largest economy and 5th largest greenhouse gas (GHG) emitter, accounting for about 5% of global emissions. Its emissions increased to 65% between 1990 and 2005 and are projected to grow another 70% by 2020. On a per capita basis, India’s emissions are 70% below the world average. Forests neutralize 11% of India’s GHG Emissions. India added around 3 million ha of forests during 1997–2007. There is significant scope for improving quality of forest cover by addressing drivers of degradation, as a significant part of the country’s forest cover falls in the open to medium categories owing to various drivers of degradation. As estimated, REDD+ programme could provide for capture of around 1 billion tonnes of additional CO₂ over the next 3 decades and significant financial incentives as carbon services under REDD+ including flow of positive incentives to local communities. This chapter analyses the current status of REDD+ efforts of India and about how it could be an effective strategy and tool for mitigation and adaptation of climate change, improving ecological and environmental services, biodiversity conservation as well enhancing forest-based livelihood of forest-dependent communities.

Climate Change is considered as the mother of many global concerns in the twenty-first century and is a significant driver of biodiversity loss leading to major threats to species, ecosystems, and people’s livelihood around the globe, in general, and the Indian Ocean in particular. Warming of oceans and ocean acidification can prove critical and challenging for the present and future generations. Oceans are one major realm that is impacted due to the natural climatic fluctuations and other anthropomorphic activities. The capacity of oceans to absorb carbon dioxide, a significant ecosystem service, is declining over time continuously with increasing carbon emissions. Thus, a reduction in greenhouse gases calls for alternate energy resources that are more secure, efficient, and environmental friendly. Moreover, the scenario of climate change vulnerabilities in developing countries is studied extensively. The unanimous call by a great majority of the scientific community is for a drastic reduction in greenhouse gasses particularly CO₂ as well as significant measures aiming at conservation of resources. The Indian Ocean climatic conditions and its variations are studied to arrive at climate mitigation measures. It also attempts to deliver constructive recommendations toward policy development. A good policy should account for alternative risk reduction strategies-mitigation, adaptation, and insurance.

Climate change is widely accepted as the single most pressing issue facing society on a global basis due to the increasing greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. GHG emissions growth between 2000 and 2010 has been larger than in the previous three decades. Hence, each of the past 3 decades has been successively warmer than the preceding decades since 1850. Continued emissions of greenhouse gases will cause further warming and changes in the climate system. Agriculture is one of the important economic sectors of the global society and climate change/variability is having a profound influence on the agroecosystems, posing serious threats to food security, human health, and protection of the environment. Of the total annual crop losses in world agriculture, many are due to increasing frequency and magnitude of weather and climate extremes such as droughts, flash floods, untimely rains, frost, hail, and severe storms. Agricultural impacts from natural events and disasters most commonly include alteration of ecosystems, contamination of water bodies, loss of harvest or livestock, increased susceptibility to disease, and destruction of irrigation systems and other agricultural infrastructures. Between 2003 and 2013, natural hazards and disasters in the developing regions affected more than 1.9 billion people and resulted in nearly 500 million US dollars in estimated damage. Effective decision-making to limit climate change and ensure economic development of agriculture sector can be made by a wide range of analytical approaches for evaluating expected risks and benefits; recognizing the importance of governance, ethical dimensions, equity, value judgments, economic assessments, and diverse perceptions and responses to risk and uncertainty. Comprehensive agrometeorological adaptation policy guidelines, focusing on preparedness and adaptation measures to support sustainable agricultural development are needed to cope with the impacts of climate change. The major international agreements in 2015, such as the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) and Paris Agreement, to which almost all countries are now committed, emphasize that countries should implement policies aimed at climate change adaptation, and greater sustainability in the agricultural sector.

A review of available weather and climate-related information products and services for the agriculture sector and their delivery mechanism is presented. This study draws upon available literature and author’s experience from the project implemented in South Asia, particularly in India, by Regional Integrated Multi Hazard Early Warning Systems (RIMES). One of the highlights of this chapter is a case study that demonstrates the advantage of involving field-based NGOs and farmers to improve the delivery mechanism of agro-advisory services. As climate services involve a wide variety of forecasts, climate outlooks, and projections, it is imperative to understand and link them with appropriate decision-making institutions and communities for building long-term climate resilience. Climate services for the agriculture sector are a positive development from the perspective of enabling farmers to adapt to climate change by building their experience to deal with the present-day climate. Climate services can also help develop sustainable and economically viable agricultural systems, increase efficiency in the use of water, labor and energy, conserve natural resources, and decrease pollution by agricultural chemicals or other agents that contribute to the degradation of the environment. Field-level work demonstrates that more information does not automatically translate into better farm services unless farmers are empowered to use it in farm-level decisions.

Implications of rapidly changing climate on different sectors of socioeconomic activities including agriculture have focussed the attention of global community to devise ways to address the negative consequences. The scenario has been compounded owing to increasing extreme events and resulting in severe impacts on life and livelihood in general and food security in particular. The status of impacts of climate change on agriculture in different regions of the world by global organizations has been presented. Various initiatives at global, regional, and local levels are underway to cope up with the adverse impacts and achieve sustainability in crop production. The chapter attempts to present the current and future status of climate change, impacts on agriculture, and emerging climate and agrometeorological services in the world and India to support climate resilient agriculture.

Increasing evidences support that the beneficial soil microbes play multiple roles in plant growth and productivity as well as increase in soil microbial carbon biomass. The beneficial soil microbes fix or solubilize plant nutrients, produce plant growth hormones, degrade agro waste, increase soil carbon sequestration, act as biocontrol agents for pests and diseases, and degrade toxic residues of agrochemicals in the agricultural soil. The soil microbial biodiversity and abundance are significant component of its multifunctional activities in nature but due to decline of population and density of specific beneficial strain or genera or their beneficial potential caused by the intensified cropping, excessive use of toxic agrochemicals, climate change-induced drought and flooding stresses, low and high temperature, unfavorable changes in soil pH, and deposition of salts in the upper crust. Due to low soil organic matter and soil quality deterioration, natural multiplication of the native soil microbial population may not occur adequately and some useful species may get lost from the rhizospheric niche. The single potential soil microbe or application of multipurpose microbial consortia of beneficial soil microbes isolated from the soil of different agroclimatic conditions as a biostimulant in the agricultural soil may help to sustain and enhance the crop productivity in a sustainable way without the use of synthetic agrochemicals. The stability, ecological succession, and impact of the inoculated microbes on native beneficial soil microbes in stressed and non-stressed agroecosystems, however, have not been investigated in most of the cases, which will be essential to assess their role in agricultural sustainability and to develop stable formulations of new generation bio-inoculants.

The extensive growth of population across the globe has elevated the need for growing crops efficiently and effectively. It has been observed that the vertical farming technique is the most dependable and innovative technique to grow crops throughout the year with the use of hydroponic technology. Vertical farming technique produces crops with the help of artificial and natural lighting in plant trays that help them in gaining maximum exposure to light by revolving inside a building premise. Furthermore, this technique is considered to be most valuable for preventing the problem of the shortage of food in an environment-friendly manner. Across the globe, it has been estimated that regions such as North America and Asia-Pacific are creating ample opportunities for the development of shipping container vertical farms and building based vertical farms that are further driving the production of pesticide-free crops along with saving ample utilization of water in these regions. Moreover, it has been observed that the countries in Asia-Pacific such as China, Japan, and India are searching for sustainable techniques for growing crops that help them in meeting the problem of food shortages in an eco-friendly method.

This chapter is an attempt to estimate and forecast the potential of vertical farming techniques, which is considered to be a sustainable agriculture alternative. Additionally, the chapter aims at providing detailed insights into the segments and market dynamics of vertical farming techniques across the globe. These classifications will further help in predicting and understanding the concept of vertical farming technique and how it is helping to attain sustainability worldwide, this will further help the key players to understand the prospective opportunities and benefits for investing in this technique.

In Uttarakhand’s perspective, there is huge scope for Renewable Energy (RE) such as hydro, small, mini, and micro-hydro, solar, biomass, geothermal, and waste to energy. At present demand for power in Uttarakhand is around 1500–1600 MW. Around 50% of the demand is met through imports and the rest is generated in the State. Since there is huge gap between demand and supply of RE in the state, it is suggested to deficit of power is 52% in the state. The main objectives of this chapter are (1) To identify and analyze the issues of RE sector in the state of Uttarakhand, (2) To suggest a suitable framework for RE development in the state. In this study, I have used descriptive and exploratory research methodology to through light on current issues of RE development in the state. I have also used the Delphi method to take expert opinions for this study. I have taken interviews with power sector experts and RE experts to get in-depth information on the issues and come out with solutions. The experts were from Central Electricity Regulatory Commission (CERC) and Uttarakhand Renewable Energy Development Association (UREDA). Interview with the experts gave me meaningful insights that a generalized public source will not be able to provide. Interviews were carried out with experts, which had open-ended questions to get meaningful insights about the issues. There is a huge deficit of power generation in the State compared to its potential. In Uttarakhand, there is a RE potential of 8115 MW (UREDA) that is much more than its demand of 1600 MW. Thus, for Uttarakhand’s Future Electricity Road Map 2030, the emphasis is to take full advantage of the state’s RE potential over the next few years, especially the solar, small, mini, and micro hydropower projects. There are several challenges faced by the power sector in the state. In the vision 2030 for the state, there is a focus on simultaneous efforts to develop renewable energy in the form of small hydropower and solar. As there is a huge gap between the demand and supply of RE in Uttarakhand till 2030, it is suggested that a framework for an integrated policy strategy for rapid RE implementation be developed that complements both the existing and the planned power projects. This framework is based on the national and international best practices and expert opinions.

Microbial Fuel cell (MFC) has come up as a promising technology for the treatment of wastewater along with simultaneous energy generation. In the initial stages of development of MFC technology, it was mainly used for organic matter removal, specially COD, but nowadays, it is also explored for treatments that include heavy metal removal/recovery, dye degradation and colour removal, nutrient toxicity removal (phosphate, nitrate) and treatment of other xenobiotic compounds like nitrobenzene, chlorobenzene and others. While conventional wastewater treatment technologies are costly due to their dependence on energy and chemicals, the MFC technology recovers energy from the wastewater during treatment. Further, there is no generation of toxic sludge in this bioelectrochemical method in contrast to that of traditional physico-chemical treatment methods. The present chapter critically discusses various applications of MFC technology in wastewater treatment along with its power generation scenario. Challenges associated with MFC technology to finally upscale it to the field level can be addressed by further research insights, particularly in the areas including electrode material, separators, biofilm communities, design and configuration briefly discussed in this study. The chapter critically assesses the technical and economic feasibility of MFC technology that can play an important role towards achieving the sustainability goals of clean water and alternate energy through energy-supported wastewater treatment.

In wake of intensifying climate change, the issue of estimating carbon footprinting is taking the centre stage and the stakeholders are getting vigilant towards its estimation. While its being done for the large industries, there is less research on the MSME sector. There is multifaceted impact on the environment by the plywood industry.

This study identifies the sources/activities of carbon emission and estimates carbon footprint in the plywood cluster of Yamunanagar district in Haryana state of northern India. The study uses IPCC methodology and is based on estimating carbon footprints across various stages of plywood manufacturing by calculating the total carbon dioxide emitted using standard emission factors published by various government agencies, and intergovernmental agencies. Carbon emissions emerging from direct deforestation (scope 1), timber processing (scope 2) and the tertiary manufacturing and distribution support services used by the industry (scope 3) have been estimated. It is found that scope 2 activities contribute a large share in carbon footprinting.

The study recommends adequate data measurement mechanisms at the firm level so that the firms could estimate their emissions and hence work for their reduction.

Discharge of huge quantities of toxic dyes along with textile wastewaters causes irreversible damage to the aquatic ecosystems on entering the rivers or streams. The conventional physico-chemical treatment methods being costly, energy intensive and less efficient in dye removal have necessitated looking for novel methods of treatment. The bioremediation approach involving biological systems has emerged as a more effective, less expensive, less energy demanding and eco-friendly treatment method for dyes. The present chapter focuses on the use of pure and mixed bacterial cultures isolated from different habitats for bioremediation of Reactive dyes, a widely used and toxic group of azo dyes. The effects of various process parameters including both nutritional and physical factors viz. carbon and nitrogen source, temperature, pH, agitation and presence or absence of oxygen on dye decolorization have been critically reviewed along with possibilities of process optimization for enhanced dye degradation using Response Surface Methodology (RSM) models. The chapter also highlights the biotransformation pathways followed by different types of microbes and the role of enzymes responsible for dye degradation. Biotoxicity assays that could be conducted to examine the dye detoxifying capability of the microbe have also been discussed. A critical appraisal of the bioremediation approach, its limitations, major challenges and future perspectives opens avenues for its application as an economically and environmentally sustainable treatment method for dye-laden wastewaters, so that the treated waters could be used safely for some designated purposes, thus helping in meeting the goals of sustainable water management.

Chlorinated phenols are a group of commercially produced substituted phenols and cresols, also referred to as chlorophenols and chlorocresols that are prepared by direct chlorination or hydrolysis of higher chlorinated derivatives of benzene. Pentachlorophenol (PCP) is an organochlorine pesticide that has found application as a wood treatment agent and biocide. Its recalcitrant and toxic nature leading to serious environmental consequences has resulted in the need for its remediation and also a ban in many countries. Although, in nature, PCP is mostly recalcitrant, yet numerous microorganisms such as certain bacteria, fungi, algae and their consortia have been shown promising PCP biodegradation and detoxification potential. This chapter presents a brief account of PCP degradation by various microorganisms along with their transformation pathways. The chapter discussed physicochemical removal of PCP and by mixed microbial communities in soil and water using biochar and bioelectrochemical systems.

Increasing population, volume, and complex nature of generated solid waste, improper implementation of existing rules, failure of waste disposal techniques, limitation of funds and infrastructure are the common causes of unsustainable solid waste management in many countries of the world including India. Further, traditional beliefs and approaches such as “out of sight, out of mind,” “not in my backyard (NIMBY)” and “flame, flush or fling” even towards the generated solid waste results in an unsustainable society which hinders sustainability. According to the World Bank forecast, annual global waste generation is expected to increase to 3.40 billion tonnes in 2050 (considering 2016 as a reference year). As per Waste Atlas 2017, India is the third-largest generator (volume basis) of municipal solid waste and will play an important role in addressing this global issue. A management system from generation up to final disposal of wastes in an environment friendly, economically affordable, and socially acceptable way is termed “Sustainable.” According to the Indian Planning Commission report of 2014, if effectively managed, the unused MSW will generate about 439 MW of power, 1.3 million m³ of biogas/day, or 72 MW of electricity from biogas and 5.4 million metric tonnes of compost annually. Many times improper use and ineffectiveness of different available techniques of harnessing energy and wealth from the wastes cause more environmental costs than economic gains. Due attention must be paid to waste composition, geographical conditions, people’s attitude, adoption of economically feasible and environment friendly disposal and treatment options to bring sustainability in solid waste management. This chapter addresses the present scenario of solid waste generation, management practices, challenges, and sustainable management systems in the Indian context.

Globally, societies have been riddled with multiple problems and long-standing issues that remain unresolved by the Government and its institutions. In the Indian context, waste management is one such area, where the journey towards building clean, safe and sustainable communities seems to be a race with no finish line. With the Swachh Bharat Mission (SBM) creating a nation-wide surge and mass awareness on cleanliness and healthy sanitation practices in India, substantial focus has been laid to this formerly overlooked sector. Various solutions and best practices on sustainable solid waste management have emerged. However, often such solutions tend to be infrastructure-based requiring large investments, which become infeasible for deployment in smaller Urban Local Bodies (ULBs). Hence, context-specific, innovative solutions for waste management is the need of the hour. This is where social entrepreneurs have stepped in, challenging and rethinking concepts and assumptions. The significance of social entrepreneurs lies in the fact that they have familiarity with unmet local needs and the entrepreneurial zeal to drive and facilitate extensive social impact. SBM has also given the much-needed impetus to such entrepreneurial initiatives, as a result of which a number of ventures focusing on innovative waste management solutions have grown rapidly in the past few years. This chapter dwells upon certain selected social enterprises that have revolutionized the waste management practices by diffusing innovations using both emerging and disruptive technologies.

Studies based on Traditional Ethnoecological Knowledge (TEK) systems help in development of critical, evaluative, and creative thinking skills, so as to aid policy decisions around sustainable solutions. Sustainable development framework outlined under Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) presents an opportunity to experiment and evolve pathways promoting resource efficiency measures that hold a hope for a better tomorrow. A systematic study of ancient wisdom embedded in indigenous communities is a step in this direction, and this chapter explores lifestyles of populations of Paudi Bhuyans, a particularly vulnerable tribal group (PVTG) living in northern parts of Odisha. Variations in the resource use practices are also described in detail. Socio-ecological uncertainties due to changes in land use patterns, habitat fragmentation, and other forces have influenced members of Paudi Bhuyan tribe to move from hills to plains triggering a slow erosion of their ethnicity. The chapter also advocates a need to study ethnoecological knowledge of Paudi Bhuyan tribe as a step towards achievement of sustainable development goals (SDGs), and also highlights unique relationships between Paudi Bhuyan populations and their natural settings. Both tribal and non-tribal communities in the study location were included for collection of information through participatory rural appraisals (PRA), interview schedules and semi-structured and open-ended questionnaires. The chapter concludes with a need to consider that Indigenous Development Goals (IDG) may be adopted as a new mantra for sustainable development. Both tribal and non-tribal communities in the study location were included for collection of information through participatory rural appraisals (PRA), interview schedules, and semi-structured and open-ended questionnaires.

Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) are a universal call for appropriate actions by the nations in the world under a global partnership to end poverty and to protect the planet, adopted by the United Nations in 2015. These were approved to the descendant context of the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs). However, SDGs include some new areas such as climate change, economic inequality, innovation, sustainable consumption, peace, and justice among others which are interconnected and commonly associated with one another. They provide opportunities, as well as, challenges for the nations based on their own distinctiveness and perceptions. It is a matter of hope that Bangladesh has been moving forward toward balanced development supported by these universal goals. As of the United Nations Committee for Development Policy (UNCDP), Bangladesh has recently achieved an implausible “development” to get the developing country status from the Least Developed Countries (LDCs). It is a graduation process that the country met all the requirements for upgrading the status. However, which is very important here is that how sustainable could be this “development,” while Bangladesh is waiting to get the official status of a “Developing Country” by 2024. Nonetheless, the progress of development in Bangladesh brings confidence toward accomplishing the SDGs. Bangladesh has already taken good preparation and remarkable policy initiatives to achieve the goals, but in reaching the goals, like others, Bangladesh has been facing different significant challenges. Consequently, the aim of this chapter is to critically figure out the key challenges as well as to evaluate the preparation in achieving the SDGs in Bangladesh. More specifically, this study intends to identify the policy instruments and institutional mechanisms to face the challenges and suggest a way out. For the purpose of the study, a list of existing literature on the issue, such as government and international documents, and research articles were collected and extensively reviewed. The study hopes to contribute to the policy as well as others concerned by the findings and their analyses.

Access and availability of basic education and universal health care to all the citizens of the nation have been considered as significant parameters for the nation to be considered as developed. With technological and economic development, India has been aspiring to be a developed nation however fragmented healthcare schemes and poorly supported basic education dominated by the private sector pose as a major challenge for the aspiration. With due cognizance to the shortcomings, the Government of India has introduced the Right to Education Act to provide education to all and Ayushman Bharat, for universal health care as an affordable scheme. Education gets financial support from the government and has been showing sign of improvement. Significant requirement of funds and facilities for Ayushman Bharat require support and participation from other stakeholders such as corporates through their corporate responsibility funds and schemes. With the implementation of the CSR Act in 2013, companies have been spending CSR funds in areas of their own interest which also includes health care services. In order to strengthen the Ayushman Bharat scheme the contribution through CSR funds can show a direction and hence authors in this chapter have analyzed the use of CSR budget for the past last 4 years. As a conclusion, a thematic PPP model has been proposed for utilization of the CSR budget and various stakeholder participation.