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2019 | OriginalPaper | Chapter

3. Converging Interests and International Cooperation: Solutions in International Law

Author : Kiran Krishnan Nair

Published in: Small Satellites and Sustainable Development - Solutions in International Space Law

Publisher: Springer International Publishing

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Abstract

The number of space actors have now evolved beyond two state contestants to numerous state and non-state actors. The activities in space have also multiplied manifold. Consequently, there is an enormous diffusion of space activities, actors and the avenues for cooperation have risen as never before. This chapter seeks to examine the aspects of how cooperation in space evolved, how international law enabled the evolution, what mechanisms of cooperation exist, the extent to which these mechanisms encourage or inhibit the spurt in civil cooperation and commerce, whether existing legislation can be gainfully adapted to the changed situation, which areas are readily adaptable and which require modification or change in entirety. Legal review and reform for military activity is stagnant because of legacy issues, but the emerging areas of civil convergence, cooperation are novel and hence may be amenable to legal review and reform.

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previous chapter The Principle of Peaceful Use of Outer Space: Reviewing the Scope of “Peaceful” in the Changed Context
next chapter Legal Options to Address the Challenges and Opportunities in Small Satellites
Footnotes
1
Del Rio Vera (2017).
 
2
Bloomfield (1965), 603 at 604.
 
3
Kendall (2018).
 
4
For details on types of cooperation mechanisms, see Categorization of International Mechanisms for Cooperation in Peaceful Exploration and Use of Outer Space, UNCOPUOS, A/AC.105/C.2/2015/CRP 15, (2015) at 9.
 
5
Bloomfield, supra note 2 at 604–605.
 
6
Statement in the First (Political and Security) Committee (United States Delegation to the General Assembly, Press Release 3875, 4 December, 1961).
 
7
Report of the Ad Hoc Committee of the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space, UN Doc A.4141/25 (1959) at 42.
 
8
International Cooperation in the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space UNGA Res 1721 (XVI), 16th Session (20 December 1961).
 
9
Question of General and Complete Disarmament, UNGA Res 1884 (XVIII), 18th Session (17 October 1963).
 
10
Siddiqi (2015).
 
11
Galloway (2008), 516 at 517.
 
12
Treaty on Principles Governing the Activities of States in the Exploration and Use of Outer Space, including the Moon and Other Celestial Bodies, 27 January 1967, 610 UNTS 205 [OST], Article I.
 
13
Ibid. Article VI.
 
14
Agreement on the Rescue of Astronauts and the Return of Objects Launched in Outer Space, 22 April 1968, 672 UNTS 119 [ARRA].
 
15
Convention on International Liability for Damage Caused by Space Objects, 29 March 1972, 961 UNTS 187 [LC].
 
16
Convention on Registration of Objects Launched into Outer Space, 14 January 1975, 1023 UNTS 15 (in force 15 September 1956) [Reg Conv].
 
17
Agreement Governing the Activities of States on the Moon and Other Celestial Bodies, UN Doc. A/34/664, New York, 5 December 1979 [Moon Agreement].
 
18
National Aeronautics and Space Act of 1958, 42 U.S.C. ch. 26 § 2451 et seq. (1958); Communications Satellite Act of 1962, 47 U.S.C. ch. 6 § 701 et seq. (1962); and International Telecommunication Satellite Organizatoin (INTELSAT) Privileges and Immunities Order, SOR/81-907.
 
19
Convention for the Establishment of European Space Agency and ESA Council, Ref CSE/CS (73) 19, rev 7 (in force 30 October 1980).
 
20
Agreement of the Arab Corporation for Space Communication, (in force 16 July 1976) [ARABSAT] in Telecommunications Journal (IX/1977) at 422.
 
21
Convention for the Establishment of a European Organisation for the Exploitation of Meteorological Satellites [EUMETSAT] (in force 19 June 1986), online: https://​www.​eumetsat.​int/​website/​wcm/​idc/​idcplg?​IdcService=​GET_​FILE, (accessed on 12 October 2017).
 
22
Ghali (1994), 265.
 
23
Guterres (2018).
 
24
Bourley (1988), 131.
 
25
Chaldek (2017), at 2, 9–10.
 
26
National Aeronautics and Space Administration, “International Cooperation” online: https://​www.​nasa.​gov/​mission_​pages/​station/​cooperation/​index.​html, (accessed on 10 November 2017).
 
27
Agreement among the United States of America, Governments of Member States of the European Space Agency, the Government of Japan, and the Government of Canada on Cooperation in the Detailed Design, Development, Operation, and Utilization of the Permanently Manned Civil Space Station, 29 September, 1988, [IGA].
 
28
For details, see US Department of State (1998).
 
29
Ibid. US, Dept of State, “Treaties and other International Acts 12927”, Article 1.
 
30
Ibid. Article 4.
 
31
Davenport (2018a).
 
32
Davenport (2018b); and Georgion (2018).
 
33
IGA, supra note 27, Article 6.3.
 
34
Ibid. Article 6.4.
 
35
Charter of the United Nations, 26 June 1945, 1 UNTS XVI (in force 24 October 1945) [UN Charter].
 
36
Declaration on Principles of International Law Concerning Friendly Relations and Co-operation among States in Accordance with the Charter of the United Nations, 24 October 1970, A/RES/25/2625.
 
37
Treaty on Principles Governing the Activities of States in the Exploration and Use of Outer Space, including the Moon and Other Celestial Bodies, 10 October 1967, 610 UNTS 205, TIAS. 6347, 18 UST 2410, Article III.
 
38
Voronina (2016).
 
39
Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties, 23 May 1969, 1155 UNTS 331, 8 ILM 679 (in force 27 January 1980), Article 31(1).
 
40
UN Charter, supra note 35, Article 1, para 1 to 4.
 
41
Voronina, supra, note 38, at 23.
 
42
UN Charter, supra note 35, Article 1.
 
43
Ibid. Articles 11, 13.
 
44
Ibid. Articles 55, 56, 61.
 
45
Voronina, supra, note 38, at 23.
 
46
Declaration on Principles of International Law Concerning Friendly Relations and Co-operation among States in Accordance with the Charter of the United Nations, GA Res 2625 (XXV), UN GA 25th Session, UNDOC A/RES/25/2625 (24 October 1970).
 
47
Lyall and Larsen (2009), at 44.
 
48
Suy (1977), at 260.
 
49
Conforti and Labella (2012), at 35, 42–43.
 
50
Hahn (1997), at 1334.
 
51
Memorandum by the Office of Legal Affairs: Use of the Terms Declarations and Recommendations, Commission of Human Rights, E/CN.4/L.610, (02 Apr 1962) online: https://​digitallibrary.​un.​org/​record/​757136/​files/​E_​CN.​4_​L.​610-EN.​pdf, accessed 22 December 2017.
 
52
Dolzer (1985), 527.
 
53
Jakhu (2005), at 6.
 
54
von der Dunk (2014), at 58.
 
55
OST, supra note 12, Article XI.
 
56
Ibid. Article 1.
 
57
Ibid. Preamble.
 
58
Benkö and Schrogl (2000), 74.
 
59
Declaration on International Cooperation in the Exploration and Use of Outer Space for the Benefit and in the Interest of All States, Taking into Particular Account the Needs of Developing Countries, GA res. 51/122, UN Doc. A/AC.105/572/Rev. 1 (1996).
 
60
Benkö and Schrogl (1993), at 213.
 
61
Ibid., at 215.
 
62
Benkö and Schrogl, supra note 58, at 74.
 
63
Question of the Peaceful Use of Outer Space, Res 1348 (XII), UNGA, 13th Session (14 November 1958).
 
64
OST, supra note 12, Preamble.
 
65
Ibid. Article I (1).
 
66
Brunner and Soucek (2011), at 326–327.
 
67
UN Charter, supra note 35.
 
68
“Benefit”, Blacks Law Dictionary, 7th ed, online: https://​thelawdictionary​.​org/​benefit/​; and “Benefit”, in Merriam Webster Law Dictionary online: https://​www.​merriam-webster.​com/​dictionary/​benefit.
 
69
For details, see website of Antriksh Corporation, online: https://​www.​isro.​gov.​in/​about-isro/​antrix-corporation-limited (accessed 30 December 2017).
 
70
For details, see website of Government of the Grand Duchy of Luxembourg, “Space Resources.lu” online: https://​spaceresources.​public.​lu/​en.​html (accessed on 03 January 2018).
 
71
Aliya Ram, “US and Luxembourg Frame Laws for New Space Race” Financial Times (19 October 2017).
 
72
Jakhu (2009), at 71–77.
 
73
Categorisation of International Mechanisms for Cooperation in Peaceful Exploration and Use of Outer Space, UNCOPUOS, UN DOC A/AC.105/C.2/2015/CRP 15, (2015) at 9.
 
74
Res 1721, supra, note 8.
 
77
See ISECG, online: https://​www.​globalspaceexplo​ration.​org/​wordpress/​ (accessed 09 January 2018).
 
78
See CEOS, online: https://​ceos.​org (accessed 09 January 2018).
 
79
African Union (2017), at 23.
 
80
See online: https://​www.​aprsaf.​org/​ (accessed 14 January 2018).
 
81
Lopez (2016).
 
82
Badri Younes, Deputy Associate Administrator (NASA) “International Cooperation in Space: Now more than Ever” at site of NASA https://​www.​nasa.​gov/​pdf/​696854main_​Pres_​International_​Cooperation_​in_​Space.​pdf.
 
83
Report of the Parliament of India, Standing Committee on Science, Technology, Environment and Forests, 312th Report, Department of Space (13 March 2018).
 
84
For details, see Jakhu (2010).
 
85
For a brief appraisal, see Kristin Archick, “The EU: Current Challenges and Future Prospects”, Congressional Research Service (February 2017).
 
86
Maps sourced from Isabelle Sourbes-Verger, “EU-India Cooperation on Space and Security”, (2016) Instituto Afferi Internazionale, IAI Working Papers 16/38.
 
87
European Union, “International Aspects”, online: https://​ec.​europa.​eu/​growth/​sectors/​space/​international-aspects_​en, (accessed on 02 February 2018).
 
88
Wilfred Jenks (1965), at 234.
 
89
Benkö and Schrogl, International Space Law in the Making, supra note 60 at 213.
 
90
Henry (2018).
 
91
The Soviet Union was initially opposed to commercial participation in space. Subsequently, it agreed that “it would be possible to consider the question of not excluding from the declaration the possibility of activity in outer space by private companies, on the condition that such activity would be subject to the control of the appropriate State, and the State would bear international responsibility for it.” Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space, 22d mtg., UN Doc A/AC.105/PV.22 (13 September 1963) at 23. See also von der Dunk (2008), 531 at 532.
 
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Metadata
Title
Converging Interests and International Cooperation: Solutions in International Law
Author
Kiran Krishnan Nair
Copyright Year
2019
Book
Small Satellites and Sustainable Development - Solutions in International Space Law

Print ISBN: 978-3-030-18619-7

Electronic ISBN: 978-3-030-18620-3

Copyright Year: 2019

DOI
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-18620-3_3

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