Cross-Cutting Symposia

Table of Contents

1. Frontmatter

2. Economics and Markets

   1. Frontmatter

   2. Integrated Traceability Framework for Mineral Supply Chains

      Paulina Fernández, Michael Tost, Emilio Castillo

      Abstract

      Ensuring traceability in mineral supply chains is crucial to mitigating risks associated with conflict-affected areas, including human rights violations, environmental degradation, and corruption. Regulatory frameworks mandate ethical sourcing, while stakeholders, such as, consumers, NGOs, and investors demand greater transparency. However, existing traceability initiatives remain fragmented, addressing isolated challenges rather than forming a comprehensive system. The complexity of mineral supply chains, involving multiple actors and diverse regulatory landscapes, further complicates implementation. This study presents an integrated framework for mineral traceability, identifying and prioritizing key components using the Fuzzy Analytical Hierarchy Process. The results emphasize that effective traceability depends on robust governance, as technological solutions alone are insufficient without strong management structures. Key priority areas include governance mechanisms, social and environmental responsibility, enhanced data management, and the adoption of advanced tracking technologies. By providing a structured approach, this framework supports the implementation of transparent, ethical, and sustainable sourcing practices. It serves as a practical guide to understand where the resources have to go, seeking to promote responsible mineral sourcing.

   3. Analyzing Price Elasticity of Supply and Demand for Battery-Essential Minerals: Insights from Recent Market Dynamics

      Ensieh Shojaeddini

      Abstract

      With the rapid adoption of clean energy technologies, understanding the price responsiveness (or elasticity) of supply and demand for minerals essential to battery production has become increasingly important. Minerals such as lithium, cobalt, graphite, manganese, nickel, and copper play a pivotal role in the development of lithium-ion batteries, which are critical for electric vehicles (EVs) and renewable energy storage solutions. This study summarizes supply and demand elasticities from (Shojaeddini et al. in Resour Conserv Recycl 207, 2024 [1]) and ongoing analyses.

   4. Evaluating Canada’s Critical Minerals Strategy: Opportunities and Challenges in Developing Ultramafic Nickel Resources

      Anastasia Alksnis, Sam Marcuson, Peter Warrian, Mansoor Barati

      Abstract

      This paper examines the effectiveness of Canada’s 2022 Critical Minerals Strategy in facilitating nickel (Ni) extraction from ultramafic sulfide ores, which have the ability to expand Canada’s Ni reserves tenfold. Potential reserves, estimated in excess of 17,000 kt, underscore the strategic opportunity; however, the complex mineralogy of ultramafic deposits, compounded by permitting bottlenecks, limits investment appeal and project viability. Additionally, Indonesia’s Ni surplus has intensified global competition, impacting new Canadian projects. The paper highlights the need for improved permitting efficiencies, suggesting that collaborative digital platforms and community engagement frameworks could expedite regulatory processes without compromising environmental or stakeholder standards. This analysis underscores the urgency of strategic adjustments to support Canada’s critical mineral goals and foster a competitive domestic Ni supply.

   5. Where Has All the Nickel Gone?

      Gary Coates, Parvin Adeli

      Abstract

      Nickel is often called “the hidden metal” as it only rarely is seen by the public in the pure form. While the amounts of nickel used in batteries has increased substantially over the past ten years, the first use of primary nickel in stainless steel still dominates. First use data from 2023 will be presented along with changes from previous years. Metallic scrap is an increasing source of nickel for alloy producers, an estimated 95% of stainless steel is recycled at end-of-life, but growth in nickel-containing stainless steel use has continued to mean that there is insufficient scrap to meet the demand. With the recycling of nickel-containing lithium ion batteries coming onstream, this will become another increasingly important source of nickel. The end use of nickel-containing materials such as stainless steel and nickel alloys will be discussed, along with some future opportunities.

   6. Modeling Byproduct and Coproduct Mine Production and Mineral Substitution Using Multidimensional Supply Curves: Application to the Cu–Co–Ni System and Beyond

      John Ryter

      Abstract

      Rapid demand growth is expected for many metals used in the energy transition. Many of these metals are byproducts of other commodities. Byproduct production’s price response is tied to host mineral economics, complicating its supply dynamics. Moreover, many of these metals are used in applications where the material properties desired are difficult to substitute; effectively, limiting how quickly demand can adapt to changes in commodity price. Previous work has demonstrated the interconnectivity of jointly produced mineral commodities from the supply side, where the copper–cobalt–nickel system was used and demand was assumed independent across commodities. Studies to understand byproduct-coproduct market interconnectivity on the demand side are limited, while studies on the interconnectivity of supply and demand simultaneously are even more so. We propose a modification to the multicommodity supply curve method to enable inter-commodity effects on demand simultaneous with supply. In batteries, high cobalt prices may push consumers to transition to high-nickel chemistries, causing the nickel demand surface to decrease with nickel price but increase with cobalt price, creating a two-dimensional demand surface. Below cross-price elasticities of 0.05, inter-commodity effects were found to be negligible, potentially permitting exclusion of these effects for many commodities. This additional demand curve complexity introduces potential computation challenges alongside the capacity to model many interrelated commodity systems such as rare earth elements, ferroalloys, country-oriented subsidies or restrictions, and bifurcated sustainable metals markets. By presenting the work done on multicommodity supply surfaces to date and potential new directions, this work aims to catalyze the next round of innovative approaches to modeling jointly produced commodities.

3. Geometallurgy

   1. Frontmatter

   2. Geometallurgy in Mineral Deposit Evaluation: A Review

      Abani R. Samal

      Abstract

      Mineral deposit evaluations require the expertise of geologists, mining engineers, process engineers, and metallurgists to collaborate for a reasonable assessment of risks and opportunities. The deposit evaluation process follows international guidelines and codes such as NI 43 101 in Canada and SK 1300 in the USA. These guidelines provide guidelines for minimum scientific studies required for a reliable outcome. Geometallurgy is an integral part of the deposit evaluation process. This paper uses various examples to demonstrate how geometallurgical issues are unique for each deposit and require collaboration between geologists and process engineers for a reliable evaluation.

   3. Variable Extraction of Cobalt from Central African Copperbelt Ores

      Isabel Barton, Robert North, Nicholas Tillotson

      Abstract

      Most global Co comes from sediment-hosted Cu-Co deposits in the Central African Copperbelt. These are primarily in the Democratic Republic of Congo. While Cu recovery at those deposits is well established and understood, Co from the same ores is notorious for apparently simple ore mineralogy but complex metallurgical behavior. Recoveries from leaching and flotation tend to lag both Cu recoveries and design predictions. This extended abstract briefly describes the variations in metal recovery from Copperbelt Co ores and discusses their correlations with mineralogy and ore typing methods. Future work to resolve the inconsistency and variability should focus on improving mineralogical characterization and the purity of samples tested. However, some of the variability—particularly for heterogenite—appears to be a function of its crystal chemistry and is probably inevitable.

   4. The Impact of Mineralogy on the Pelletization Performance of Indian Chromite Overburden

      Deepak Nayak, Nilamadhaba Sahu, Sunil Kumar Tripathy, Gajanan U. Kapure

      Abstract

      The demand for stainless steel, driven by urbanization and growth in the automotive, construction, and appliance sectors, has increased the need for nickel. Essential for its strength and corrosion resistance, nickel makes up over 60–70% of stainless steel. Due to limited domestic supply, India imports all its nickel, classifying it as a “Critical Mineral.” This study aims to extract nickel from chromite overburden in Odisha's Sukinda Valley, located in the eastern part of India, through pelletization. Two samples were analyzed: one high in iron and nickel and the other moderate in both but high in silica. The research optimized pelletizing conditions by examining basicity, binder content, and induration cycles. Characterizing the feed material revealed that its mineralogy significantly influences pellet quality. Thermodynamic analyses helped optimize parameters, resulting in strong pellets suitable for direct reduced iron (DRI) production with a metallization rate of approximately 90%. These pellets could effectively produce nickel-based alloys.

   5. What is the Value of Orebody Knowledge?

      Shaun Barker, Cassady Harraden, Carolina Marin Suarez, Andrea Rutley, Warren Wegener, John Steen, Dave Lawie

      Abstract

      It has been recognized for some time that many mining operations do not meet their forecast production or realize their projected financial value. In many (most?) cases, this is due to technical failures during feasibility studies—i.e., insufficient orebody knowledge (McCarthy in AUSIMM Mining Risk Management Conference Proceedings, 2003 [1]). Recent work by Gillis et al. (Resour Policy 90:104821, 2024 [2]) has pointed out that poor orebody knowledge may be a leading cause of financial underperformance of the Canadian mining industry, with impairments related to technical errors recognized as a significant driver of financial loss. The global cost to the industry exceeds more than USD$1,000,000,000 per year. Therefore, poor orebody knowledge represents a significant financial and environmental risk to the mining industry. Conversely, emerging technologies and new data integration and analytics mean that more orebody data is being collected than ever before and is seen as a panacea to improving mining industry performance. However, we argue that the most serious challenge is to convert the abundant, high-quality data being collected into actionable knowledge with a stated robustly determined financial benefit. We suggest this will require an “exploration to mill” effort with enhanced collaboration between teams across the value chain, new data integration and visualization tools, and data analytics and support.

   6. Copper Geometallurgy Programs: Comparison Between Different Deposit Types

      Nicole Hoffmann, Steven Williams, Kevin Boerst, Joe Ruffini

      Abstract

      Geometallurgy is a multidisciplinary program that allows for exploration and mining projects to de-risk and increase value of their deposit. This paper will discuss the application of geometallurgical methodology by comparing two settings of copper mineralogy and metallurgy that have the same goal: understanding and modeling copper metallurgical grade and recovery within a mine plan for a prefeasibility study. The first setting is a copper-rich magmatic sulfide deposit from the Midcontinent Rift, Minnesota, USA. This deposit is an intercontinental setting, has simple geomechanics, and is comprised of relatively fresh mafic–ultramafic rocks that contain critical metals. The metallurgy and tailings management options are relatively straightforward. The second setting is a copper porphyry deposit from Arizona, USA. Porphyry deposits are contained within felsic rock types with extensive alteration profiles. Recent tectonics creates complicated geomechanical considerations that affect mine planning and water management. The extraction potential of the supergene-hypogene model affects mineral processing and tailings management. The overall framework of the geometallurgy programs will be the same at the highest level: choose samples, perform standardized testwork, analyze and model data, then domain the deposit and scale-up. However, project location and ore type dictate the internal methodology and analysis details. This results in optimized metallurgical decisions and a more adaptable mine plan that increase confidence in copper grade and recovery predictions.