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Open Access 2022 | Open Access | Book

Cover of the book

Energy-Efficient and Semi-automated Truck Platooning

Research and Evaluation

Editors: Alexander Schirrer, Alexander L. Gratzer, Sebastian Thormann, Stefan Jakubek, Matthias Neubauer, Wolfgang Schildorfer

Publisher: Springer International Publishing

Book Series : Lecture Notes in Intelligent Transportation and Infrastructure

Part of: Springer Professional "Wirtschaft+Technik" , Springer Professional "Technik"

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About this book

This open access book presents research and evaluation results of the Austrian flagship project “Connecting Austria,” illustrating the wide range of research needs and questions that arise when semi-automated truck platooning is deployed in Austria. The work presented is introduced in the context of work in similar research areas around the world. This interdisciplinary research effort considers aspects of engineering, road-vehicle and infrastructure technologies, traffic management and optimization, traffic safety, and psychology, as well as potential economic effects.

The book’s broad perspective means that readers interested in current and state-of-the-art methods and techniques for the realization of semi-automated driving and with either an engineering background or with a less technical background gain a comprehensive picture of this important subject. The contributors address many questions such as:

Which maneuvers does a platoon typically have to carry out, and how?How can platoons be integrated seamlessly in the traffic flow without becoming an obstacle to individual road users? What trade-offs between system information (sensors, communication effort, etc.) and efficiency are realistic? How can intersections be passed by a platoon in an intelligent fashion?

Consideration of diverse disciplines and highlighting their meaning for semi-automated truck platooning, together with the highlighting of necessary research and evaluation patterns to address such a broad task scientifically, makes Energy-Efficient and Semi-automated Truck Platooning a unique contribution with methods that can be extended and adapted beyond the geographical area of the research reported.

Table of Contents

Frontmatter
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Open Access

18. Correction to: Energy-Efficient and Semi-automated Truck Platooning
Alexander Schirrer, Alexander L. Gratzer, Sebastian Thormann, Stefan Jakubek, Matthias Neubauer, Wolfgang Schildorfer
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Contextualising Truck Platooning

Frontmatter

Open Access

Chapter 1. Connecting Austria Project Outline
Abstract
In 2017, the core team of the Connecting Austria project faced the challenge of leveraging previous research results on cooperative intelligent transport systems (C-ITS) into the logistics domain—namely into the domain of truck platooning. Quite a lot of ideas and topics were evaluated, potential research partners explored, and funding opportunities for a cooperative research project were assessed. The window-of-opportunity opened in 2017 when the Federal Ministry on Transport, Innovation and Technology started a tender for a flagship research project on automated driving in different domains. This was the start of “Connecting Austria”. The following paragraphs outline the project in a nutshell, the project objectives, technology domains targeted and the planned test procedure, use cases and finally sketch the challenges and international uniqueness of the Connecting Austria project.
Walter Aigner, Andreas Kuhn, Thomas Novak, Wolfgang Schildorfer
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Open Access

Chapter 2. Truck Platooning Worldwide
Abstract
Although early attempts date back several decades, truck platooning initiatives and trials gained significant momentum in the 2010s in the light of the overall wave of vehicle automation. This chapter aims at providing an overview of the most significant platooning endeavours over the past two decades, with focus on European efforts and their thematic priorities and conclusions. Whereas for example relevant Southeast Asian countries tend to be driven by national roadmaps and national funding, many of the European projects and trials are funded by the European Commission’s research programmes, bringing together several countries and resulting in more open access information. The presented review demonstrates how the focus of the discussion changed over time, also revealing a shift in the relevant parties and stakeholders: while the initial intention was reduction in fuel costs, the claimed benefits have now diversified and additional interest groups brought to the table environmental, safety, legal, infrastructural and labour regulation arguments for and against platooning.
Hatun Atasayar, Philipp Blass, Susanne Kaiser
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Open Access

Chapter 3. Towards Truck Platooning Deployment Requirements
Abstract
Truck platooning represents a promising means to enhance efficiency of freight transport. Developments of truck platooning date back to the early 1990s, starting with projects to illustrate the technical feasibility followed by projects investigating the potential of fuel savings up to feasible business models and multi-brand and multi-fleet platooning approaches. However, the deployment and adoption of truck platooning technologies need to detail, harmonise and finally meet diverse requirements. Figure 3.1 sketches requirement dimensions related to truck platooning, which span from safety and security requirements, stakeholder requirements to technical and functional requirements. In this chapter, selected results addressing requirements related to energy-efficient truck platooning, user and other road user requirements, road safety requirements and technical requirements related to C-ITS are presented.
Matthias Neubauer, Wolfgang Schildorfer
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Open Access

Chapter 4. Research Design and Evaluation Strategies for Automated Driving
Abstract
Automated driving, in general, and platooning, in particular, represent a highly active field of research. The idea to automate traffic is closely related to high expectations in both individual and public transport. However, the complexity of automated driving requires methods beyond the traditional development approaches. This chapter describes a state-of-the-art methodology to organise and systematically address a comprehensive set of research questions in the context of truck platooning. Following best practices, an evaluation design is presented, which ensures the alignment of research efforts with the actual research agenda, that is, to answer the right questions. Specifically, the benefits of automated driving and their conflicting relationships are explored and the entities that affect automated driving performance and their interactions are presented. Finally, a solution concept that adequately addresses the complexity and the stochastic nature of the problem is presented. The solution concept consists of several key methods such as scenario-based design and stochastic simulation, data mining and complexity and robustness management.
Andreas Kuhn, José Carmona, Elvira Thonhofer
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Assessment Methodologies and Their Application

Frontmatter

Open Access

5. Truck Platoon Slipstream Effects Assessment
Abstract
With the increase of stringent emission standards and higher road transportation cycles in the last few decades, the importance of transport and fuel efficiency plays a major role. The aerodynamic forces on trucks have a huge impact of the overall fuel consumption rate. For a 40 tonnes semi-trailer truck at 85 km/h on a flat highway, around 40% of the provided engine power is needed to overcome the air resistance (Hucho in Aerodynamik des Automobils. Vieweg + Teubner, Wiesbaden, [1]). An efficient way to reduce the aerodynamic drag of trucks is to build a platoon of trucks. To assess the potential of a truck platoon due to slipstream effect, computational fluid dynamic (CFD) simulations were conducted. The simulations were performed for a platoon with three trucks for different constant velocities at different inter-vehicle distances. The results are summarised in a normalised drag coefficient and fuel reduction map. As a limiting factor of platooning, the thermal management aspect must be considered, because the slipstream reduces the air mass flow through the engine compartment. This aspect of reduced air mass flow through the engine compartment was analysed as well.
Alexander Kospach, Christoph Irrenfried
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Open Access

6. Validation of Truck Platoon Slipstream Effects
Abstract
Due to slipstream effects, platooning leads to a significant decrease of the fuel consumption of the heavy-duty vehicles (HDV). Measurements with a platoon consisting of three vehicles were performed at the Zalazone proving ground. The goal of these measurements was to get the static pressure at the front and the rear of the second vehicle to calibrate computational fluid dynamics simulation and to measure the fuel consumption directly. Measurements were done at a vehicle speed of 80 km/h and varying inter-vehicle distances. Platooning leads to a reduction of the pressure coefficients in the centre of the HDV front and an increase of the pressure coefficient at the top and the rear of the HDV. Furthermore, a reduction of the fuel consumption of the leading vehicle of 7.9% at an inter-vehicle distance of 6 m and 3.7% at a distance of 22 m was determined. A comparison to CFD simulation showed a similar fuel reduction for an inter-vehicle distance of 6 m and 22 m. CFD simulation showed an increase of fuel consumption at an inter-vehicle distance of 15 m. This increase was experimentally not validated. Also, results for the following vehicle are presented.
Bernhard Lechner, Almir Cajic, Bernhard Fischbacher, Alexander Kospach, Alexander Mladek, Peter Sammer, Christoph Zitz, Michael Zotz, Christoph Irrenfried
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Open Access

Chapter 7. Simulation of Platoon Dynamics, Optimisation and Traffic Effects
Abstract
This chapter outlines the methodologies required to realise a comprehensive scenario-based approach for effective and efficient development and validation of complex, cooperative control functions in connected and automated driving. These methods are exemplified for platooning and are devised in the scope of Connecting Austria, the Austrian flagship project on automated driving and goods transport. The development and validation approach have first been implemented vertically in depths for the intersection use cases of Connecting Austria. The scenario-based approach includes
  • The systematic identification, collection and collocation of the relevant and representative traffic scenarios.
  • The modelling and simulation of the according traffic and vehicle control strategies.
  • The effectiveness assessment of the traffic and vehicle control strategies with the help of suitable key performance indicators.
  • The controlled iterative adaption to new situations and boundary conditions by steady extension of the operational design domain within an adaptive, learning framework.
The demonstration use case “intersection” is the most complex with respect to possible C-ITS, traffic and vehicle control actions. That way generality should be guaranteed, enabling a quick, horizontal extension to further use cases and scenarios, aiming to cover all relevant situations for platooning vehicles within their operational design domain. The application of all methods introduced here will be demonstrated in Chap. 9.
Elvira Thonhofer, José Carmona
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Open Access

Chapter 8. Platoon Control Concepts
Abstract
Cooperative platoon control strategies utilise provided information from vehicle-to-everything (V2X) communication to reduce energy consumption and improve traffic flow and safety. In this chapter, a distributed control concept for cooperative platooning is developed that combines trajectory optimisation and local model-predictive control of each vehicle. The presented control architecture ensures collision safety by design, platoon efficiency and situational awareness with the option of exploiting V2X communication. The resulting platoon control performance is tested and validated in a realistic setting by utilising a co-simulation-based validation framework with detailed vehicle dynamics.
Alexander L. Gratzer, Alexander Schirrer, Sebastian Thormann, Stefan Jakubek
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Open Access

Chapter 9. Scenario-Based Simulation Studies on Platooning Effects in Traffic
Abstract
This chapter outlines the portfolio of simulation campaigns that have been carried out to thoroughly study the effects of platooning in the traffic system. The approach outlined in Chap. 7 is utilised to quantify typical platoon trajectories and manoeuvres in highway settings as well as in urban intersection scenarios. The addressed studies do not yield a single result, but instead depend on many parameters (such as platoon spacing/gap policy, surrounding traffic density and speed and many more) and are investigated in terms of the results’ sensitivities on these parameters. This approach allows one to draw meaningful conclusions despite the inherent uncertainty and spread of the influencing parameters. By using representative conditions, the resulting KPI distributions are evaluated and interpreted. Considering real traffic parameters, such as density, truck share, distances, speed and their empirical distributions and restrictions on the assumed “degree of connectivity” of trucks, maximum platoon length, an estimation of the real achievable traffic efficiency and the potential for improvement relative to the current status can be calculated.
Andreas Kuhn, José Carmona, Elvira Thonhofer, David Hildenbrandt
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Open Access

Chapter 10. Energy-Efficient Internet of Things Solution for Traffic Monitoring
Abstract
Recent progress in video-based vehicle sensors allows for a detailed observation of road users on intersections in urban areas. By combining the measured real-life traffic situation with thorough traffic simulations, a cooperative system design for the dynamic management of traffic flow including vehicle platoons is possible. In this chapter, we describe our video-based traffic flow estimation system that we installed at a three-way intersection in the small city of Hallein, Austria. We show that the installed system is able to collect comprehensive information about the traffic situation in near real time, and that this information can be used to estimate traffic density and flows of cars and trucks with high precision.
Thomas Hoch, Theodorich Kopetzky
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Open Access

Chapter 11. Fuel Efficiency Assessment
Abstract
The assessment of fuel efficiency represents a vital element when it comes to the deployment and business model development of truck platooning. In this chapter, the methodological approach implemented in the Connecting Austria project to assess fuel efficiency is presented. The approach covers the following assessment aspects: (1) the assessment of the road infrastructure in terms of the suitability of road segments for truck platooning, (2) the assessment of driving behaviour and strategies for truck platoon formation and dissolution and (3) the assessment of efficiency in terms fuel savings for certain routes.
José Carmona, David Hildenbrandt, Florian Hofbauer, Matthias Neubauer
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Open Access

Chapter 12. Application of Fuel Efficiency and Traffic Efficiency Assessment
Abstract
This chapter presents the application of the fuel assessment methodology developed in the Connecting Austria project. Thereby, a route analysis for an Austrian fleet operator is performed including the assessment of feasible and economic viable routes and scenarios. Furthermore, potential fuel consumption and CO\(_{2}\) emission savings are discussed within the given case. The saving potential may be increased via dynamic C-ITS-based truck platoon regulations, instead of statically defined, too restrictive regulations as indicated in the C-ITS assessment section. Finally, the chapter discusses the effect of truck platooning on increasing traffic efficiency.
Elvira Thonhofer, Matthias Neubauer, Florian Hofbauer
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Towards Cooperative Truck Platooning Deployment

Frontmatter

Open Access

Chapter 13. Road Safety Issues Related to Truck Platooning Deployment
Abstract
The benefits of platooning to road safety are oftentimes inferred based on the assumption of positive effects attributed to advanced driver assistance systems (ADAS). However, the potential to significantly reduce car crashes is just one of many aspects to be considered. The Connecting Austria project was committed to examining road safety issues from various perspectives within Austria. The legislative situation in Austria regarding public tests of automated driving systems was reviewed and requirements discussed. Furthermore, an assessment of the readiness of 700 km road infrastructure was assessed by means of an adapted Road Safety Inspection and recent heavy goods vehicle (HGV) accident figures on motor and expressways were discussed. Eventually, the distance at which HGV should operate cooperatively is a road safety issue demanding for consideration of other road users. Car drivers’ subjective tolerance of gap sizes between trucks can serve as an important indicator to answer this question. An on-road study aiming at operationalising the individual gap acceptance is outlined.
Susanne Kaiser, Martin Winkelbauer, Erwin Wannenmacher, Philipp Blass, Hatun Atasayar
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Open Access

Chapter 14. Business Models, Economy and Innovation
Abstract
Emerging technologies may trigger rethinking existing business models, clearly highlighting economic benefits and analysing effects on innovation systems. Truck platooning as one emerging technology in the area of road freight transport promises to improve efficiency and safety and requires different stakeholders (e.g. road operators, freight forwarders, truck manufacturers, etc.) to adapt their business models. In this chapter, key aspects when developing a truck platooning business model from a road operator’s perspective will be summarised based on related work and interviews/workshops conducted in the Connecting Austria project. Furthermore, the relevance of ongoing trend monitoring to continuously adapting business models is discussed in this chapter and applied for logistics and automated driving within the Connection Austria consortium.
Patrick Brandtner, Andrea Massimiani, Matthias Neubauer, Oliver Schauer, Wolfgang Schildorfer, Gerold Wagner
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Chapter 15. Advanced Powertrain Systems for Platooning-Capable Trucks
Abstract
This chapter deals with the interaction of platooning-capable trucks and their powertrain systems. In a first step, prospective propulsion systems and their characteristics for platooning are discussed. Therefore, different topologies are analysed, also in terms of the intended use cases. These considerations are made mainly according to CO\(_{2}\)-limitation efforts in the background. Secondly, thermal management regarding platooning is in the focus. Investigations on the influence of the air mass flow for an internal combustion engine (ICE) operated truck are presented. Further, thermal management challenges in combination with a fuel cell operated truck are discussed. For this purpose, dedicated solutions and methods in development are presented. Finally, essential future research fields are outlined.
Michael Nöst, Christian Doppler, Alexander Mladek
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Open Access

Chapter 16. How Platooning Research Enhances the European Innovation System
Abstract
Maybe we would need a convincing narrative how innovation and our innovation system contribute to societal wealth—a new kind of Adam Smith equivalent. European road transport is part of a wider ecosystem where significantly increasing levels of digitalisation, automation and innovation will re-shape the world as we have known it. Ambitious political agendas to enhance sustainability and to increase transport effectiveness beyond what can be achieved within a fragmented and traditional way of operation have added momentum. Nevertheless, there are significant open issues beyond what road-maps to various futures maintain to know. Management narratives related to innovation and innovation systems have been challenged. This chapter intends to outline some of the elements how this kind of C-ITS-related platooning research has enhanced our shaping and re-framing of new questions and concepts regarding the European innovation system. Even without electronically coupled trucks on European public roads, elements of dynamic capabilities have evolved. On the other hand, it has become obvious how far some stakeholders have fallen behind the knowledge generation in European C-ITS-related projects. By means of rather selective knowledge intake and knowledge-related search paths, some institutions have shown to be some fifteen years behind accessible knowledge.
Ilja Bäumler, Herbert Kotzab, Walter Aigner
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Chapter 17. Discussion
Abstract
In 2017, the Connecting Austria project was internationally unique with respect to the special consideration of the infrastructure and traffic perspective as well as the special consideration of investigating an urban truck platooning use case with traffic-light-controlled intersections before and after motorway entrances. The three main target groups of the project were: (1) road operators/infrastructure providers, (2) logistics operators and (3) C-ITS industry. Especially for those target groups and policy maker faced one central question at that point in time —“How can safe truck platooning reduce CO\(_{2}\)-emissions and how can this help to strengthen the stakeholders’ role in their market or political environment?”. Cooperative, connected and automated mobility shape the future of road transport. Thereby, truck platooning represents an important application case in the transport logistics domain. In this chapter, the research and evaluation results presented in this book are discussed along the following three fundamental pillars: (1) traffic safety and legal issues, (2) sustainability and (3) truck platooning deployment. Finally, limitations and cultural blind spots experienced within international workshops and discussions in the context of the Connecting Austria project are reflected.
Walter Aigner, Matthias Neubauer, Wolfgang Schildorfer
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Metadata
Title
Energy-Efficient and Semi-automated Truck Platooning
Editors
Alexander Schirrer
Alexander L. Gratzer
Sebastian Thormann
Stefan Jakubek
Matthias Neubauer
Wolfgang Schildorfer
Copyright Year
2022
Electronic ISBN
978-3-030-88682-0
Print ISBN
978-3-030-88681-3
DOI
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-88682-0

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