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Introduction to Hydrology Read chapter Read first chapter

2014 | OriginalPaper | Chapter

12. Engineering Management of Agricultural Land Application for Watershed Protection

Authors : Lawrence K. Wang, Ph.D., P.E., D.EE, Nazih K. Shammas, Ph.D., Gregory K. Evanylo, Ph.D., Mu-Hao Sung Wang, Ph.D., P.E., D.EE

Published in: Modern Water Resources Engineering

Publisher: Humana Press

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Abstract

The controlled application of biosolids to cropland by subsurface injection or surface spreading is introduced in this chapter. Specifically, the land application process operation, design criteria, performance, biosolids application rates, staffing requirements, process monitoring, sensory observation, normal operating procedures, process control considerations, emergency operating procedures, safety considerations, application and design examples, costs, and troubleshooting guide are presented and discussed in detail. Proper land application for watershed protection is discussed.

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Glossary
Agricultural land
Land on which a food, feed, or fiber crop is grown. This includes range land or land used as pasture.
Agronomic rate
The whole sludge application rate designed to (a) provide the amount of nitrogen needed by a crop or vegetation grown on the land and (b) minimize the amount of nitrogen in the sewage sludge that passes below the root zone of the crop or vegetation grown on the land to the ground water.
Annual pollutant loading rate (APLR)
The maximum amount of a pollutant that can be applied to a unit area of land during a 365-day period. This term describes pollutant limits for sewage sludge that is given away or sold in a bag or other container for application to the land.
Annual whole sludge application rate
The maximum amount of sewage sludge on a dry weight basis that can be applied to a land application site during a 365-day (1-year) period.
Area of cropland
An area of cropland that has been subdivided into several strips is not a single field. Rather, each strip represents an individual field unit.
Bagged sewage sludge
Sewage sludge that is sold or given away in a bag or other container (i.e., either an open or closed receptacle containing 1 mT or less of sewage sludge).
Best management practice (BMP)
A method that has been determined to be the most effective, practical means of preventing or reducing pollution from nonpoint and point sources.
Biosolids
Biosolids are solids, semisolids or liquid materials, resulting from biological treatment of domestic sewage that has been sufficiently processed to permit these materials to be safely land-applied. The term of biosolids was introduced by the wastewater treatment industry in the early 1990s and has been recently adopted by the US Environmental Protection Agency (US EPA) to distinguish high-quality, treated sewage sludge from raw sewage sludge and from sewage sludge containing large amounts of pollutants.
Bulk sewage sludge
Sewage sludge that is not sold or given away in a bag or other container for application to the land.
Ceiling concentration limits (CCL)
The ceiling concentration limits are the maximum concentrations of the nine trace elements allowed in biosolids to be land-applied. Sewage sludge exceeding the ceiling concentration limit for even one of the regulated pollutants is not classified as biosolids and, hence, cannot be land-applied.
Class I sludge management facility
Publicly owned treatment works (POTWs) required to have an approved pretreatment program under 40 CFR 403.8(a), including any POTW located in a state that has elected to assume local pretreatment program responsibilities under 40 CFR 403.10(e). In addition, the Regional Administrator or, in the case of approved state programs, the Regional Administrator in conjunction with the state director, has the discretion to designate any treatment works treating domestic sewage (TWTDS) as a Class I sludge management facility.
Crop group
Individual farm fields that are managed in the same manner, with the similar yield goals, are called a crop group.
Crop management
The management involves crop group identification, crop nitrogen deficit determination, crop nitrogen fertilizer rate calculation, and crop yield optimization.
Crop nitrogen deficit (CND)
Crop nitrogen deficit (CND) equals to anticipated crop nitrogen fertilizer rate (CNFR) minus all past PAN sources (PAN-past) and current planned non-biosolids PAN sources (PAN-plan), in the unit of lb N/acre. Previous biosolids carryover nitrogen is included in this calculation.
Crop nitrogen fertilizer rate (CNFR)
CNFR is a rate (lb N/acre) = (yield) (UNFR), where UNFR is the unit nitrogen fertilizer rate (lb N/unit crop yield) and yield is the crop harvested, or crop yield (bu/acre or ton/acre).
Crop year
The basic time management unit is often called the crop year or planting season. The crop year is defined as the year in which a crop receiving the biosolids treatment is harvested. For example, fall applications of biosolids in 2000 intended to provide nutrients for a crop to be harvested in 2001 are earmarked for crop year 2001. Likewise, biosolids applied immediately prior to planting winter wheat in October 2000 should be identified as fertilizer intended for crop year 2001 because the wheat will be harvested in the summer of 2001.
Crop yield
It is the crop harvested in the unit of bu/acre or ton/acre.
Cumulative pollutant loading rate (CPLR)
CPLR equals to the total amount of pollutant that can be applied to a site in its lifetime by all bulk biosolids applications meeting CCL. It is the maximum amount of an inorganic pollutant that can be applied to an area of land. This term applies to bulk sewage sludge that is land-applied.
Designated use
Simple narrative description of water quality expectations or water quality goals. A designated use is a legally recognized description of a desired use of the waterbody, such as (a) support of communities of aquatic life, (b) body contact recreation, (c) fish consumption, and (d) public drinking water supply. These are uses that the state or authorized tribe wants the waterbody to be healthy enough to fully support. The US Clean Water Act requires that waterbodies attain or maintain the water quality needed to support designated uses.
Distressed watershed
It is a watershed which has aquatic life and health that is impaired by nutrients (nitrogen and phosphorus) from agricultural land uses, such as land application. Threats to public health, drinking water supplies, recreation, and public safety are also taken into consideration if a watershed is designated as a distressed watershed.
Domestic septage
Either a liquid or solid material removed from a septic tank, cesspool, portable toilet, type III marine sanitation device, or similar treatment works that receives only domestic sewage. This does not include septage resulting from treatment of wastewater with a commercial or industrial component.
Eutrophication
Enrichment of an aquatic ecosystem with nutrients (nitrogen, phosphorus) that accelerate biological productivity (growth of algae and weeds) and an undesirable accumulation of algal biomass.
Exceptional quality sewage sludge
Sewage sludge that meets the most stringent limits for the three sludge quality parameters. In gauging sewage sludge quality, US EPA determined that three main parameters of concern should be considered as the following: (a) pollutant levels, (b) the relative presence or absence of pathogenic organisms, such as Salmonella and E. coli bacteria, enteric viruses, or viable helminth ova, and (c) the degree of attractiveness of the sewage sludge to vectors, such as flies, rats, and mosquitoes, that could potentially come in contact with pathogenic organisms and spread disease. Given these three variables, there can be a number of possible sewage sludge qualities. The term Exceptional Quality (EQ), which does not appear in the Part 503 regulation, is used to describe sewage sludge that meets the highest quality for all three of these sewage sludge quality parameters (i.e., ceiling concentrations and pollutant concentrations in 503.13 for metals, one of the Class A pathogen reduction alternatives, and one of the sewage sludge processing vector attraction reduction options 1 through 8).
Farm field
The farm field is the basic management unit used for all farm nutrient management, as defined as “the fundamental unit used for cropping agricultural products.”
Feed crop
Crops produced primarily for consumption by animals. These include, but are not limited to, corn and grass. For a crop to be considered a feed crop, it has to be produced for consumption by animals (e.g., grass grown to prevent erosion or to stabilize an area is not considered a feed crop).
Fiber crop
Crops, such as flax and cotton, that were included in Part 503 because products from these crops (e.g., cotton seed oil) may be consumed by humans.
Food crop
Crops consumed by humans. These include, but are not limited to, fruits, grains, vegetables, and tobacco.
Forest land
Tract of land thick with trees and underbrush.
Heavy metals
Trace elements are found in low concentrations in biosolids. The trace elements of interest in biosolids are those commonly referred to as “heavy metals.” Some of these trace elements (e.g., copper, molybdenum, and zinc) are nutrients needed for plant growth in low concentrations, but all of these elements can be toxic to humans, animals, or plants at high concentrations. Possible hazards associated with a buildup of trace elements in the soil include their potential to cause phytotoxicity (i.e., injury to plants) or to increase the concentration of potentially hazardous substances in the food chain. Federal and state regulations have established standards for the following eight heavy metals: arsenic (As), cadmium (Cd), copper (Cu), lead (Pb), mercury (Hg), molybdenum (Mo), nickel (Ni) and zinc (Zn), plus selenium (Se), which is not legally listed as a heavy metal.
Impaired waterbody
A waterbody that does not meet the criteria that support its designated use.
Indicator organism
An indicator organism (e.g. fecal coliform) is a nonpathogenic organism whose presence implies the presence of pathogenic organisms. Indicator organisms are selected to be conservative estimates of the potential for pathogenicity.
Individual field unit
An area of cropland that has been subdivided into several strips is not a single field. Rather, each strip represents an individual field unit.
Impaired waterbody
A waterbody that does not meet the criteria that support its designated use.
Land application
Land application is defined as the spreading, spraying, injection, or incorporation of liquid or semiliquid organic substances, such as sewage sludge, biosolids, livestock manure, compost, septage, legumes, and other types of liquid organic waste, onto or below the surface of the land to take advantage of the soil-enhancing qualities of the organic substances. These organic substances are land-applied to improve the structure of the soil. It is also applied as a fertilizer to supply nutrients to crops and other vegetation grown in the soil. The liquid or semiliquid organic substances are commonly applied to agricultural land (including pasture and range land), forests, reclamation sites, public contact sites (e.g., parks, turf farms, highway median strips, golf courses), lawns, and home gardens.
Land application site
An area of land on which sewage sludge is applied to condition the soil or to fertilize crops or vegetation grown in the soil.
Manure
Any wastes discharged from livestock.
Mesotrophic
The term describes reservoirs and lakes that contain moderate quantities of nutrients and are moderately productive in terms of aquatic animal and plant life.
Mineralization
Most nitrogen exists in biosolids as organic-N, principally contained in proteins, nucleic acids, amines, and other cellular material. These complex molecules must be broken apart through biological degradation for nitrogen to become available to crops. The conversion of organic-N to inorganic-N forms is called mineralization.
Narrative criteria
Nonnumeric descriptions of desirable or undesirable water quality conditions.
Nonpoint source
Diffuse pollution source; a source without a single point of origin or not introduced into a receiving stream from a specific outlet. The pollutants are generally carried off the land by storm water. Common nonpoint sources are agriculture, forestry, urban areas, mining, construction, dams, channels, land disposal, saltwater intrusion, and city streets.
Numeric criteria
Numeric descriptions of desirable or undesirable water quality conditions.
Nutrients
Nutrients are elements required for plant growth that provide biosolids with most of their economic value. These include nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P), potassium (K), calcium (Ca), magnesium (Mg), sodium (Na), sulfur (S), boron (B), copper (Cu), iron (Fe), manganese (Mn), molybdenum (Mo), and zinc (Zn).
Pasture
Land on which animals feed directly on feed crops such as legumes, grasses, or grain stubble.
Pathogens
Pathogens are disease-causing microorganisms that include bacteria, viruses, protozoa, and parasitic worms. Pathogens can present a public health hazard if they are transferred to food crops grown on land to which biosolids are applied; contained in runoff to surface waters from land application sites; or transported away from the site by vectors such as insects, rodents, and birds.
pH
pH is a measure of the degree of acidity or alkalinity of a substance. The pH of biosolids is often raised with alkaline materials to reduce pathogen content and attraction of disease-spreading organisms (vectors). High pH (greater than 11) kills virtually all pathogens and reduces the solubility, biological availability, and mobility of most metals. Lime also increases the gaseous loss (volatilization) of the ammonia form of nitrogen (ammonia-N), thus reducing the N-fertilizer value of biosolids.
Plant-available nitrogen (PAN)
Only a portion of the total nitrogen present in biosolids is available for plant uptake. This plant-available nitrogen (PAN) is the actual amount of N in the biosolids/manure that is available to crops during a specified period.
Planting and harvesting periods
The cycle of crop planting and harvesting periods, not the calendar year, dictates the timing of biosolids and manure land application activities. Winter wheat and perennial forage grasses are examples of crops that may be established and harvested in different calendar years.
Planting season
The basic time management unit is often called the crop year or planting season. The crop year is defined as the year in which a crop receiving the biosolids treatment is harvested.
Point source
A stationary location or fixed facility from which pollutants are discharged; any single identifiable source of pollution, such as a pipe, ditch, ship, ore pit, or factory smokestack.
Pollutant
A contaminant in a concentration or amount that adversely alters the physical, chemical, or biological properties of the natural environment.
Pollutant concentration limits (PCL)
Pollutant concentration limits are the maximum concentrations of heavy metals for biosolids whose trace element pollutant additions do not require tracking (i.e., calculation of CPLR (cumulative pollutant loading rate). PCL are the most stringent pollutant limits included in US Federal Regulation Part 503 for land application. Biosolids meeting pollutant concentration limits are subject to fewer requirements than biosolids meeting ceiling concentration limits.
Preparer
Either the person who generates sewage sludge during the treatment of domestic sewage in a treatment works or the person who derives a material from sewage sludge.
Public contact site
Land with a high potential for contact by the public, including public parks, ball fields, cemeteries, nurseries, turf farms, and golf courses.
Range land
Open land with indigenous vegetation.
Reclamation site
Drastically disturbed lands, such as strip mines and construction sites, that can be reclaimed using biosolids.
Septage
Septage means the liquid and solid material pumped from a septic tank, cesspool, or similar domestic sewage treatment system, or holding tank when the system is cleaned or maintained.
Sewage sludge
The solid, semisolid, or liquid residue generated during the treatment of domestic sewage in a treatment works. Sewage sludge includes, but is not limited to, domestic septage, scum, and solids removed during primary, secondary, or advanced wastewater treatment processes. The definition of sewage sludge also includes a material derived from sewage sludge (i.e., sewage sludge whose quality is changed either through further treatment or through mixing with other materials).
Stakeholder
Individual or organization that has a stake in the outcome of the watershed plan.
Threatened waterbody
A waterbody that is meeting standards, but exhibits a declining trend in water quality such that it will likely exceed standards.
Total Kjeldahl nitrogen (TKN)
TKN is the summation of ammonium nitrogen (NH4 +-N) and organic nitrogen (organic-N).
Total maximum daily load (TMDL)
The amount, or load, of a specific pollutant that a waterbody can assimilate and still meet the water quality standard for its designated use. For impaired waterbodies the TMDL reduces the overall load by allocating the load among current pollutant loads (from point and nonpoint sources), background or natural loads, a margin of safety, and sometimes an allocation for future growth.
Total nitrogen
It is the summation of ammonium nitrogen (NH4 +-N), nitrate nitrogen (NO3 −-N), nitrite nitrogen (NO2 −-N), and organic nitrogen (organic-N). Usually nitrite nitrogen is in negligible amount. Crops directly utilize nitrogen in its inorganic forms, principally nitrate-N and ammonium-N.
Total solids (TS)
Total solids (TS) include suspended and dissolved solids and are usually expressed as the concentration present in biosolids. TS depend on the type of wastewater process and biosolids’ treatment prior to land application. Typical solids contents of various biosolids are: liquid (2–12 %), dewatered (12–30 %), and dried or composted (50 %).
Trace elements
Trace elements are found in low concentrations in biosolids. The trace elements of interest in biosolids are nearly all “heavy metals.”
Treatment works
Federally owned, publicly owned, or privately owned device or system used to treat (including recycle or reclaim) either domestic sewage or a combination of domestic sewage and industrial waste of a liquid nature.
Treatment works treating domestic sewage
A POTW or other sewage sludge or wastewater treatment system or device, regardless of ownership used in the storage, treatment, recycling, and reclamation of municipal or domestic sewage, including land dedicated for the disposal of sewage sludge.
Unit nitrogen fertilizer rate (UNFR)
UNFR is a rate in lb-N per unit crop yield, where the unit can either bushel or ton. (Note: 1 bu (US bushel) = 1.2444 ft3; 1 British bushel = 1.2843 ft3; 1 t (British ton) = 2,000 lbs; and 1 T (metric ton) = 1,000 kg).
Vectors
Vectors include rodents, birds, insects that can transport pathogens away from the land application site.
Vector attraction
Characteristics (e. g., odor) that attract birds, insects, and other animals that are capable of transmitting infectious agents.
Volatilization
Ammonium-N in biosolids can be significant, making up even half the initial PAN of biosolids. The ammonium-N of biosolids can vary widely depending on treatment and storage. Since ammonium-N is prone to volatilization (as ammonia gas, NH3), the application method affects PAN. For instance, surface-applied biosolids are expected to lose half of their ammonium-N. Conversely, direct subsurface injection or soil incorporation of biosolids within 24 h minimizes volatilization losses. The conversion of ammonium-N to ammonia gas form (NH3) is called volatilization.
Volatile solids (VS)
Volatile solids (VS) provide an estimate of the readily decomposable organic matter in biosolids and are usually expressed as a percentage of total solids. VS are an important determinant of potential odor problems at land application sites.
Water quality standards
Standards that set the goals, pollution limits, and protection requirements for each waterbody. These standards are composed of designated (beneficial) uses, numeric and narrative criteria, and anti-degradation policies and procedures.
Watershed
A watershed is the area of land where all of the water that is under it or drains off of it goes into the same place, land area that drains to a common waterway, such as a stream, lake, estuary, wetland, or ultimately the ocean.
Watershed approach
A flexible framework for managing water resource quality and quantity within specified drainage area, or watershed. This approach includes stakeholder involvement and management actions supported by sound science and appropriate technology.
Watershed plan
A document that provides assessment and management information for a geographically defined watershed, including the analyses, actions, participants, and resources related to development and implementation of the plan.
Yield
It is the crop harvested in the unit of bu/acre or ton/acre.
Literature
1.
US EPA (1995) Process design manual: land application of sewage sludge and domestic septage, EPA/625/R-95/001. US Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, DC
2.
US EPA (1992) Technical support document for reduction of pathogens and vector attraction in sewage sludge, EPA 822-R-93-004. US Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, DC
3.
US EPA (1999) Environmental regulations and technology: control of pathogens and vector attraction in sewage sludge, EPA/625/R-92/013. US Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, DC
4.
Smith JE Jr, Millner PD, Jakubowski W, Goldstein N, Rynk R (2001) Contemporary perspectives on infectious disease agents in sewage sludge and manure. Proceedings of the workshop on emerging infectious disease agents and issues associated with sewage sludge, animal manures, and other organic by-products, Cincinnati, OH, June 2001
5.
Stehouwer RC, Wolf AM, Doty WT (2000) Chemical monitoring of sewage sludge in Pennsylvania: variability and application uncertainty. J Environ Qual 29:1686–1695CrossRef
6.
Overcash M, Sims RC, Sims JL, Nieman JKC (2005) Beneficial reuse and sustainability: the fate of organic compounds in land-applied waste. J Environ Qual 34:29–41CrossRef
7.
Kester GB, Brobst RB, Carpenter A, Chaney RL, Rubin AB, Schoof RA, Taylor DS (2005) Risk characterization, assessment, and management of organic pollutants in beneficially used residual products. J Environ Qual 34:80–90
8.
Xia K, Bhamdari A, Das K, Pillar G (2005) Occurrence and fate of pharmaceuticals and personal care products (PPCPs) in biosolids. J Environ Qual 34:91–104CrossRef
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US EPA (1994) Land application of sewage sludge, EPA-831-B-93-002b. US Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, DC, December 1994
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US EPA (2006) Emerging technologies for biosolids management, EPA-832-R-06-005. US Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, DC, September 2006
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VDEQ (2013) Biosolids use regulations. 12VAC-5-585-10et seq.32.1-164.5 of the Code of Virginia, Virginia Department of Environmental Quality, VA
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US EPA (1990) National sewage sludge survey (NSSS) – availability of information and data, and anticipated impacts on proposed regulations. Federal Regulations 55:218. US Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, DC
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US EPA (1991) National pretreatment program: report to congress. Technical report EPA-21-W-4004.). US Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, DC
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US EPA (2000) Biosolids technology fact sheet – land application of biosolids, EPA-832-F-00-064. US Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, DC, September 2000
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US EPA, NACWA, and WEF (2005) Biosolids nutrient management-calculating agronomic rate of application. Chapter 13. National Manual of Good Practice for Biosolids. National Biosolids Partnership, Alexandria, VA, January (2005)
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US EPA (1995) Amendments to the standards for the use or disposal of sewage sludge (40 code of federal regulations part 503). US Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, DC
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Metadata
Title
Engineering Management of Agricultural Land Application for Watershed Protection
Authors
Lawrence K. Wang, Ph.D., P.E., D.EE
Nazih K. Shammas, Ph.D.
Gregory K. Evanylo, Ph.D.
Mu-Hao Sung Wang, Ph.D., P.E., D.EE
Copyright Year
2014
Publisher
Humana Press
Book
Modern Water Resources Engineering

Print ISBN: 978-1-62703-594-1

Electronic ISBN: 978-1-62703-595-8

Copyright Year: 2014

DOI
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-62703-595-8_12