Eurasian Business Perspectives

Table of Contents

1. Frontmatter

2. Human Resources Management

   1. Frontmatter

   2. The Impact of Supervisor Support on Employee-Related Outcomes Through Work Engagement

      Maria Leonor Pires

      Abstract

      One of the main concerns for organization management is employee-related outcomes, given their impact on organizational performance. Relatively less attention is given to organizational features that may intervene in the process, such as organizational culture or climate and direct supervision. We study the impact of supervisor support perceptions on absenteeism and on burnout, through the mediation of work engagement, while controlling the effect of perceived organizational values. Hypotheses were tested on a 43,850-multicountry sample, through multiple regression-based analyses. Results show that supervisor support precedes work engagement, a relationship moderated by organizational values; supervisor support, partially mediated by work engagement, relates negatively with absenteeism and exhaustion, prevents cynicism, and increases perceptions of self-efficacy. The findings allow us to discuss the role of supervisor support on work engagement and their effects on employee outcomes.

   3. Level of Similarity of Team Management with the Use of System of Organizational Terms

      Olaf Flak

      Abstract

      This paper aims at estimating a level of similarity in team management in a given project in two dimensions of managerial actions: types of management techniques used by managers and their sequence. In management studies, there is extensive research on management styles, management skills, and management roles. Despite this, they are still not sufficient to estimate the similarity of team management. To solve the problem of ambiguity of these terms, more efficient methodology of managerial work was introduced. This methodology is called the system of organizational terms, and it allows nonparticipating observations of team managers and their members by online management tools, which record human actions. The system was used in the research of five teams of students, who were given the same project to conduct for one month. Their teamwork was recorded by online management tools in content and time domains; however, in this paper, a level of team management similarity is considered only in the field of the time domain. The main conclusion from the research is that there are no similarities in team management done by the managers.

   4. A Novel, Competency-Based Approach of the HRM-Related Definition of Talent: A Suggestion Based on Theoretical and Empirical Findings

      Eszter Daruka, Katalin Pádár

      Abstract

      Talent management (TM) has gotten more and more attention recently, but definitions/approaches to talented employees still confusingly differ. Therefore, talent definitions were collected from selected peer-reviewed TM articles, and corporate talent conceptualizations were examined through empirical data. For the systematic literature review, we examined 507 English-only publications published until the end of 2018 in the Web of Science database containing “talent management” in the topic field. Empirical data was collected from Hungarian corporations; the answers (n = 67) to the relevant questions of the online questionnaire were also analyzed. The results show that there are still TM articles without any kind of conceptualization of “talent,” while in other cases different talent tensions/approaches and further inconsistencies are observable. Such tensions/approaches are, for example, the object versus subject ones. All of them can be explicitly or implicitly connected to competencies; thus, they can also become measurable via measuring competencies. This paper offers a comprehensive and consistent solution by suggesting the application of a well-known competency model in the TM context. This proposed competency-based approach can become such a first step of any comprehensive corporate TM initiative that would serve and synchronize all the further ones—substantially contributing to the overall success of HRM.

3. Management

   1. Frontmatter

   2. Crisis Management: The Perspective of Organizational Learning

      Jarema Batorski

      Abstract

      The purpose of this paper is to propose instruments to improve crisis management in an organization from the perspective of organizational learning. The assumption on which the research was based is the claim that the success of crisis management depends both on the effectiveness of the learning processes that enable overcoming a crisis and the ability to learn a lesson from a crisis. Organizational crises may be conducive to the process of intensive organizational knowledge acquisition. Actions undertaken in terms of crisis management often constitute the means for organizational learning, which is related to issues of the adaptation, survival, and competitiveness of enterprises in conditions of discrete changes in the environment. A crisis is a chance for revitalizing changes that would otherwise be impossible to implement. Increasing the ability to manage crises can be considered as a favorable condition for long-term economic and social development. Real help for managers confronted with organizational crises depends on the awareness of the importance of anti-crisis management and, above all, the problems they must face. In shaping the ability to learn valuable lessons from a crisis, the following factors are crucial: normalization mechanisms, the organization’s double-loop learning ability and the managers’ awareness of its importance in learning from a crisis, and the organization’s single-loop learning ability. Improving organizational learning should lead to the reconstruction of the organization’s abilities to cope in the crisis.

   3. Standardization of Global Logistics Business Operations

      Slobodan Aćimović, Veljko M. Mijušković, Jovana Obradović

      Abstract

      Running a business internationally is certainly a challenge, given the large distance, a great number of mediators, and different regulations, and to battle these challenges, the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) standards were created. The role of mentioned standards is a multiple one. Above everything else, there are a large number of standards, and their diversity is key to regulating multiple aspects of running a business. They ensure an optimum relationship between a company and the environment, as well as the best healthcare and protection of its employees. No less important is the impact these standards have on keeping the food products safe to consume, given that food couldn’t be called safe if the proper procedures, principles, and quality standards weren’t applied during logistics. The aim of this paper is to point out the essence of what quality is and how to achieve it by applying ISO standards in an international logistics business. The analysis within the paper uses secondary data, as well as methods of description and comparison in order to draw conclusions. This paper consists of six parts, where each of them shows the importance and contribution of different ISO standards to the global logistics business operations. The paper findings show that each of the analyzed standards is of great importance for companies that provide international logistics services, as each of them enables different business segments to be supported by the best requirements and rules, eliminating any negative impact and leading to the best quality of the final international logistics services.

   4. Can Performance Appraisal Satisfaction Improve Performance? A Study at Indonesian Universities

      Ietje Nazaruddin, Hafiez Sofyani, Fitri Wahyuni, Erni Suryandari

      Abstract

      The performance of lecturers will affect the performance of higher education. This study aims to examine the mediating effect of performance appraisal satisfaction on the relationship between organizational justice and trust to the lecturers performance. This study is a cross-sectional study with a survey method. Respondents are lecturers in reputable universities in the Special Region of Yogyakarta, Indonesia. The survey collected 205 data for analysis. Validity and reliability testing were conducted prior to examining the relationship between variables using structural equation models (SEM). The results show that organizational justice and trust can improve lecturers performance. Furthermore, the results indicate that performance appraisal satisfaction mediated the influence of organizational justice and trust on the lecturers performance. Lecturers performance will increase when the level of trust and fairness of the organization is high which will further increase the commitment of lecturers to achieve their performance targets. A high level of trust and organizational justice will also increase the lecturers satisfaction with the performance appraisal applied by institutions, and the lecturers’ contribution to improving their performance will also be higher. Research results provide feedback to higher education leaders on the positive role of performance appraisal satisfaction in improving lecture performance.

   5. Team Viability: Mission Impossible or Feasible? Threats for Team Viability in Contemporary Polish Organizations

      Iwona Janiak-Rejno, Agnieszka Żarczyńska-Dobiesz, Barbara Chomątowska

      Abstract

      Current state of knowledge literature offers numerous studies of the team viability construct perceived as the main dimension of team’s effectiveness. The paper aims to identify threats to team viability in today’s conditions of operation of Polish organizations and to specify means to reduce their impact. The empirical part is based on the results of the survey conducted in the first half of 2019 on 242 representatives of teams. The authors conducted their own research using a questionnaire. The research allowed to identify key threats to team viability in the following areas: engagement in the team, team building, team management, communication with the team, and team atmosphere. The paper concludes that with the understanding of viability of a given team and with the knowledge of threats and their impact, managers can take a proactive approach to effectively guide their teams toward successful performance. The findings should help Polish companies, team leaders, and their members collaborate in the way to enhance team viability.

   6. On the Issue of Implementation of Agile and Strategy as a Practice Mixed-Method in Strategic Planning

      Elena Serova, Oleg Kalmykov

      Abstract

      Strategic planning process is a crucial part of business development of any company. Especially, it can be stated so for IT organizations, where external environment is turbulent. In this research, we analyze and develop strategic planning processes in Russian IT companies, bringing both practical and academic values. This research is aimed to cover issues that lie in the intersection of strategic management, operational management, and organizational behavior. The problem of this research lies in fact that strategic planning process in some Russian companies is low efficient due to its non-agility and unclear organization on microlevel. The study discovers new research field and brings contribution, such as combination of the main advantages of agile and strategy-as-practice (SasP) implementation. It contains the overview and analysis of theoretical and empirical foundations related to the research problem and overview of the best international business practices in this field of research. The results are based on Russian IT companies’ case study, qualitative interviews, and quantitative survey.

   7. Business Model Analysis of Veterinary Clinic: The Case Study

      Karolina Beyer

      Abstract

      In the article, the theoretical and empirical considerations about business models in veterinary clinics were taken. There are two main objectives of the article. The first aim is to present the results of the research conducted on the business model used by a veterinary clinic in Poland, and the second is to present proposed recommendations to management problems in veterinary practices. To achieve the objectives, an analysis of the business model used in the veterinary clinic was conducted. The method used in the research was the business model canvas, interviews with the clinic owner and manager were carried out, and online survey with customers was conducted. The research hypothesis is that the changing conditions of the economic environment necessitate a change in the business model of running veterinary practice. There is no universal business model for a veterinary practice. This model must be adapted to the specifics of the functioning of entities in formal and legal terms. As a result of the completed research, a holistic image of the veterinary clinic was created, as well as an analysis of its business model. As a part of the study, the clinic’s offer and value proposition were analyzed; also the client segment and key partners were identified. In the research, the analysis of key activities and resources of the company was conducted, and sources of revenues and costs of the examined entity were determined. As a result of the study, the author proposed some recommendations of management activities to implement in veterinary clinics.

   8. Is Higher Level of Trust in Organizations Always Positively Correlated with Higher Economic Results? Evidence from Estonian Farms

      Mare Kurvits, Angela Jarvis

      Abstract

      Social capital and economic performance, especially the connection between social capital and economic success, has been a challenging subject since the 1980s. The researchers mostly agree that a high level of social capital impacts the economy positively. According to the OECD study (OECD, 2015), it is suggested that an increase in social capital can be the driver of economic growth in Estonia. Trust is considered an essential factor of both social capital and organizational success. The objective of the study was to investigate the relationship of trust and organizational performance as well as the financial results of the organizations based on Estonian farms. A sample of 89 farms was studied. To investigate trust and organizational performance, the instrument with three parts, management trust (MT), organizational trust (OT), and organizational performance (OP), was used. The measures of MT, OT, and OP integrated a Likert-type scale. The data of annual reports were used as indicators of economic results. Both MT and OT positively contributed to organizational performance, but no positive correlation was found between trust indices and economic indicators. The additional study was carried out among the farmers of 32 companies to indicate the possible reasons for no correlation. The main causes pointed out were connected with external conditions like weather, political events (sanctions to Russia), and price level at the stock market.

   9. Ideologies at Work in Organizations: An Emerging Critical Perspective and Reflexive Research Agenda

      Severin Hornung, Thomas Höge, Christine Unterrainer

      Abstract

      This article reviews conceptual and empirical building blocks of an emerging research agenda on ideology in work organizations. Ideologies are discussed with reference to interests, institutions, and identities, reflecting societal, organizational, and individual perspectives. Societal issues are addressed in the critique of the political-economic ideology of neoliberalism, system justification theory, and historical ideological transitions. On the organizational level, ideologies are examined in the context of management control systems and employee responses to power, drawing on downsizing research as an example. Individual-level psychological mechanisms and consequences of ideological control are addressed in theorizing on social character, subjectification, governmentality, and the entreployee concept. Denaturalization, reflexivity, and anti-performativity are suggested as research principles. Operationalizing anti-performativity, a suggested counter-model of humanistic ideals, positions individuation, solidarity, and emancipation against neoliberal ideologies of individualism, competition, and instrumentality. Discussed research needs include theoretical elaboration, empirical investigations, and practice-oriented applications.

   10. Contemporary Research and Analysis of Food Industry: Case of Russian Restaurant Business Network Branch

       Elizaveta Fainshtein, Elena Serova, Pavel Vorobyev

       Abstract

       This paper represents the results of a strategic SWOT analysis and its application to the Russian chain restaurant business market. It analyzes the innovative quantitative factors influencing the use of the SWOT model, identifies and classifies the strategic problems of chain restaurant business models, and studies regression and dispersion analyses of the data obtained during the survey to identify and solve problems of business process management. The paper focuses on the innovative quantitative model of SWOT analysis, taking into account the internal and external resources influencing the improvement of business processes and identifying problem areas for small- and medium-sized restaurants. The basis of the results is foreign and domestic research in the field of strategic management and represents the impact of internal and external resources on the management of a network enterprise. The empirical base of the study is survey data of Russian restaurant network representatives.

   11. Quality Audit Indicators for Inbound Tourism: A Qualitative Study on Malaysian Travel Agencies

       Mazni Saad, Afiza Mohamad Ali, Zahid Ismail, Nor Hafizah Mohd Arop

       Abstract

       Quality assurance is fundamental to all business activities in the tourism sector as it is advantageous to market recognition and competitiveness. Awareness of the importance of quality assurance certifications is already in place in Malaysia; however, it is still under-researched. Thus, this study aims to investigate how local travel agency operators perceive suitable levels of quality audit indicators for inbound travel agencies. A semi-structured interview was conducted to explore the views and experiences of key industry players from five travel agencies involved in both inbound and outbound tourism businesses in the country. A content analysis of data acknowledged the industry’s increased awareness of quality service delivery and the importance of rationalizing key quality audit indicators in assuring the lifelong survival of inbound Malaysian travel agencies. Also found was the need for systematic monitoring of the inbound travel agency’s certification plan that continually reflects the demands of the clientele and uplifts national productivity as outlined in the initiatives undertaken by the Tourism Productivity Nexus, an industry-led establishment under the Malaysia Productivity Blueprint 2016–2020. The study finally outlines specific entrepreneurial strategies that will enhance productivity operations at the enterprise level.

4. Marketing

   1. Frontmatter

   2. Supportive Elements of a Long-Term B2B Communication: The Case of a Norwegian SME

      Karoline Hjelmeland, Elena Panteleeva

      Abstract

      A successful relationship marketing requires a company to manage the communication with its customers in a way that it creates value for all parties. Therefore, the strategic role of communication has become a managerial priority for firms in all industries. Even though the concept of communication process has been thoroughly studied, the issue of long-term B2B communication between industrial companies has been scantly represented in the literature. Responding to the call for more examination of this issue against empirical evidence, this paper examines the long-term B2B communication process established by the industrial company, using the case of one Norwegian small- and medium-sized enterprise (SME) communicating with its international customers. The purpose of the paper is to reveal and describe elements which are supportive and contribute to a successful long-term cooperation. The paper is based on primary data collected from the interviews with the company representatives. Secondary data collected from public sources was used as well. The case company chosen for the study is a world leader in the polyurethane foam market, family-owned SME. It was assumed that the key elements of the communication process in this company are prominent and accessible for empirical examination. The empirical description is structured around the interactive communication model. The study traced the communication process in a case company and revealed that (1) actors providing communication, (2) the subject for communication, and (3) the stages of the sales process configure and modify elements of the communication process and ways these are applied.

   3. Differences in Consumer Behavior from the Viewpoint of Education and Gender

      Tatiana Pethö, Robert Štefko, Ivana Ondrijová

      Abstract

      The aim of the research study is to analyze selected factors of consumer behavior (consumer ethnocentrism, consumer materialism, and compulsive buying) of secondary education and university education of employees in relation to gender. The research sample consisted of 160 employees aged between 20 and 65. The sample included 82 women, 78 men, 97 employees with secondary education, and 62 employees with university education. Data collection was carried out by means of the methodology Consumer Ethnocentric Tendencies Scale (CETSCALE) to determine the level of consumer ethnocentrism. Consumer behavior was also found in two sub-scales, namely, the subconscious of consumer materialism and the subconscious of compulsive buying. The research results were assessed by two-way mixed analysis of variances (ANOVA). Analysis of research results showed that women with secondary education expressed a significant higher level of compulsive buying than women with university education. On the other hand, men with secondary education did not express a significant higher level of compulsive buying than men with university education. The limitation of study is an occasional choice of research sample.

   4. Omnichannel Strategies Under the Marketing 4.0 Paradigm: Conceptual Structure and Current Applications

      V. Özlem Akgün, Emel Celep

      Abstract

      The transformation in the field of marketing from the past to the present is quite remarkable. In short, this transformation can be summarized as follows: “Marketing 1.0” approach, which is expressed as product-centric marketing; then “Marketing 2.0” approach, which considers customer requests and expectations and is based on consumer-centered marketing; and followed by “Marketing 3.0” approach, which is based on human-centered marketing. The last stage of the change in marketing activities is “Marketing 4.0” applications. While this journey that started with Marketing 1.0 continues with Marketing 4.0, the concept of omnichannel marketing ranks high among the prominent concepts in this process. Omnichannel marketing applications, which overlap well with Marketing 4.0 applications and create the opportunity to bring together all the online and offline assets of businesses, enables not only physical communication channels but also web-based channels to be used in critical marketing areas such as finding customers and creating customer loyalty. Many of today’s modern businesses consider these practices as an important marketing strategy that will provide competitive advantage over competitors. In this study, it is aimed to provide detailed information about Marketing 4.0 implementations during the transition from traditional marketing to digital marketing. With this aim, some conceptual information about omnichannel marketing activities have been given, examples of brands which present omnichannel marketing experience both in Turkey and in the world have been presented, and some proposals have been given for better competitive strategies for the companies in today’s competitive environment. To achieve these goals, the literature review method was used in the study.

   5. The Relationship Between Logo Changes and Brand Equity in Creating Brand Awareness

      Meltem Diktaş, V. Özlem Akgün

      Abstract

      The rapid transformation in technology has led to an increase in options and similar products for consumers, and therefore, consumers have the chance to access products faster and easier. For this reason, branding is an important concept for marketing activities that affect consumers’ purchasing decisions. In product and service marketing, brands’ logos are among the main distinguishing features of that product or service. Logos become the brand’s identity and play a role in helping consumers distinguish the brand from other competitors. In this study, the question of how the brands with high brand value applied the logo design change in the context of simplification strategies was started. For this purpose, logo design changes of the most valuable brands in different segments of the world have been investigated in order to obtain data about the role of brand value on brand logo redesign. In order to collect the products of the luxury segments under a single logo, they chose simple, large font, and legible designs, and global brands choose a logo that minimizes the risks that may arise in the global competition, and food businesses use designs consisting of lively, colorful, and brand products.

   6. Framework of Marketing Performance Measurement and Management

      Asta Kamandulienė, Lina Pilelienė

      Abstract

      A topic of marketing performance measurement is gaining its popularity in marketing and managerial scientific discussions and attracting extent attention among practitioners. However, going deeper into a topic, it can be stated that, despite a body of literature and various insights, the topic still lacks a proper substantiation. The research aims to elaborate a conceptual framework for marketing performance measurement and management. To achieve the aim, the research provided the following steps: First, the existing scientific literature is analyzed to establish a theoretical framework for the research; based on the results of scientific analysis, the key and most important dimensions of marketing performance are determined and the questionnaire is composed to assess the importance of the determined dimensions in practice (the executive officers and managers of business companies are surveyed to substantiate the importance of the dimensions). After obtaining the results, it can be stated that a unified structure for marketing activity measurement in Lithuanian companies is missing. The evaluations provided by experts indicate that the most important indicators are financial- and consumer-related, as well as the future growth possibilities. Based on the research results, managerial implications for marketing performance measurement and management are provided.

   7. Consumers’ Influence in Online Social Networks Regarding Recycling Habits

      Camelia Delcea, Liviu-Adrian Cotfas, Rafal Mierzwiak, Mihai Orzan

      Abstract

      The rapid growth and use of the online social networks have generated an increasing interest in different research areas, while a series of studies have shown the importance of the consumers’ influence in these networks on other users’ decisions and attitudes. In this context, the current research focuses on the recycling habits’ influences that might be exerted on the online social networks. As a starting point, based on the current researches, a questionnaire has been created and validated. During the validation process, the questionnaire has passed the unidimensionality, feasibility, convergent, and similarity validity. Three hundred seventeen respondents have taken part in this study. The questions have tried to extract the respondents’ attitude toward recycling and the online media exposure in relation to the recycling habits. Most of the questions have been evaluated using a 5-point Likert scale. Among the results, the potential frequency for the recycling process based on the users’ activity in online social networks has been determined. Knowing this frequency and the type of online social networks interactions related to the recycling habits, the interested organizations can conduct a series of campaigns in online environments in order to reduce the duration needed for a full adoption rate of the recycling attitude.

   8. From the 4 Ps to 5 Ps: Prompt, a New Element for the Marketing Mix: A Specific Analysis of the Coffee Market: The Portuguese Market

      Sílvia Faria, Pedro Ferreira

      Abstract

      The goal of this study is to test the introduction of a new variable in the marketing mix—prompt—and how it may impact on consumers’ satisfaction and brand loyalty. Coffee was chosen to test this new variable since it is one of the most preferred and consumed drinks all over the world. It is also the basis of a dynamic sector with a constant introduction of new products, blends, and formulas. A literature review was conducted based on the traditional 4 Ps model, namely, its importance for consumers’ buying behavior, specifically consumers’ satisfaction and brand loyalty. The empirical study was based on a survey of 220 coffee consumers, with the aim of understanding if having the product available impacts on satisfaction and brand preference. Despite some limitations, results seem to support the construct of “prompt” as an additional marketing-mix variable. Moreover, “prompt” seems to be a key element for satisfaction and loyalty. These findings are valid for Portuguese coffee consumers and should be validated in other cultural contexts and the consumption of other products and/or services. The 4 Ps remain as the most mentioned element of companies’ marketing strategy. The validity of a new marketing-mix variable, with confirmed impact on consumers’ outcomes, should be considered in the design of companies’ marketing strategy. This paper discusses the need to consider a new marketing-mix variable—prompt—in the actual accepted/recommended marketing-mix model.

   9. An Investigation on Voluntary Simplicity Movement in the Context of Sustainable Consumption Behavior Against the Overconsumption Tendency

      Emel Celep, Meltem Diktaş

      Abstract

      The main purpose of individuals in purchasing goods and services is to gain ego satisfaction and prestige, and the consumption style in which they believe that they will live a more comfortable life by consuming more and not content with what they have is explained as overconsumption and conspicuous consumption. This consumption style is accepted as a behavior that is among the barriers to sustainable living, distancing individuals from their selves, and causing social and environmental problems. It is recognized that voluntary simplicity movement develops along with the sustainable consumption tendency in order to prevent the personal and environmental negative effects of increasing consumption amounts as a necessity of the increasingly modernized world and business practices. Voluntary simplicity is also important as a way of life that has the potential to produce solutions to environmental losses, global problems, various economic problems, and consumer dissatisfaction due to overconsumption. The aim of this study is to consider the voluntary simplicity movement as the consumption dimension of sustainability, which is accepted as a solution to the consumption frenzy and adopted by individuals who want to reduce consumption as much as possible and to make changes in consumption habits.

   10. Students’ Perception of Quality in Higher Education: Evidence from the Polytechnic in Croatia

       Mirjana Jeleč Raguž, Verica Budimir, Svjetlana Letinić

       Abstract

       Quality assessment by service users or students is becoming increasingly important. Institutions in caring about quality should question students’ satisfaction with service provided regularly. The subject of research in this paper is both students’ perception of higher education quality (in general) and students’ satisfaction with the quality of service on the example of Polytechnic in Croatia. The paper aims to explore what is the quality of higher education from students’ perspective and how students perceive the quality of service at the selected Polytechnic. The research for this paper was conducted using an online questionnaire, compiled by the authors of this paper, in June/July 2019, on a sample of 102 full-time students. The research results indicate that, according to the students’ perception, the most important determinant of quality in higher education process is quality of teaching staff, kindness of administrative staff, availability of teachers, and quality of study programs. On the other hand, the least important determinants of quality are quality of incoming students, visibility and demand for graduates, and schedule exam time without overmatching. Regarding the students’ satisfaction with the quality of service at the selected Polytechnic, the research results indicate that students are very satisfied with quality of service provided (3.8 on scale 1–5) and, for the most part, they are satisfied with their choice of higher education institution (63%).

   11. Rationalization as New Trend in Food Behavior of Polish Consumers

       Gabriela Hanus

       Abstract

       The main purpose of this research is to identify and characterize phenomena of rationalization in food behavior of Polish consumers and the factors shaping them. For this purpose, household budget surveys are conducted. It makes it possible to observe changes in food consumption over a period of 10 years. Moreover, direct surveys among 660 respondents using quantitative methods are used. The collected data are analyzed using factor analysis (main component method), Cronbach’s alpha-factor, linear regression models, Pearson’s χ² and Cramer’s V coefficients, and descriptive statistics and structure indicators. The analyses show that the phenomenon of rationalization is clearly visible in food behavior of Polish consumers and is associated with higher food awareness of Poles, lower consumption of most of the food articles, higher importance of quality and consistence of food, development of phenomena of foodsharing and freeganism, and growing popularity of some diets such as vegetarian or vegan diet.