Ethical Leadership, Disengagement, and Employee Attitudes
Ethical leadership involves “the demonstration of normatively appropriate conduct through personal actions and interpersonal relationships and the promotion of such conduct to followers through two-way communication, reinforcement and decision-making” (Brown et al.
2005, p. 120). This style of leadership includes a moral person aspect and a moral manager aspect (Brown and Treviño
2006). The moral person aspect reflects leaders’ traits or qualities such as fairness, integrity, and trustworthiness. Comparatively, the moral manager aspect reflects how ethical leaders promote ethical behaviour in the workplace. Such behaviours include involving followers in decision-making, providing clarity about appropriate conduct and ethical expectations, incentivising ethical behaviours and punishing unethical conduct (Brown et al.
2005; Treviño et al.
2003; Vullinghs et al.
2018). In this respect, ethical leaders treat followers fairly and with respect by demonstrating people-oriented behaviours and care for their needs (Brown et al.
2005; Treviño et al.
2003; Vullinghs et al.
2018).
Ethical leadership is theoretically different from other forms of positive leadership, such as transformational and authentic leadership (Ng and Feldman
2015; Hoch et al.
2018). Contrary to transformational leadership, where the main focus is on role modelling, ethical leadership comprises a transactional component, which involves the use of punishment or discipline for unethical conduct or behaviour (Brown et al.
2005; Stouten et al.
2013). Ethical leadership is also distinct from authentic leadership, wherein leaders focus primarily on relational transparency and self-awareness rather than ethical behaviour (Stouten et al.
2013). Thus, rather than including ethics as an auxiliary or secondary dimension, ethical leadership explicitly emphasizes the moral aspects of leadership (Hoch et al.
2018; Mostafa
2018).
Recent research has shown that ethical leadership is negatively related to turnover intentions, and positively related to job satisfaction and organisational commitment (Ng and Feldman
2015; Demirtas and Akdogan
2015; Bedi et al.
2016; Hoch et al.
2018; Wang and Xu
2019). However, as noted before, a better understanding is still needed of the mediating psychological process through which ethical leadership induces its effects on these outcomes (Ng and Feldman
2015; Wang and Xu
2019). This study proposes that the relationship between ethical leadership and job satisfaction, organisational commitment, and turnover intentions is mediated by disengagement.
Although burnout has been conceptualised in different ways since its inception, there is general agreement that it consists of two main components: high levels of exhaustion and a cynical/distant reaction towards one’s work (Demerouti et al.
2019). The exhaustion component is known as emotional exhaustion, which involves “feelings of being overextended and depleted of one’s emotional and physical resources” (Maslach et al.
2001, p. 399). The cynicism component was originally known as depersonalisation, yet more recently it has been labelled disengagement (Sonnentag
2005). Disengagement is the degree to which a person withdraws or distances from all work aspects (Demerouti et al.
2010). Kahn (
1990, p. 64) states that disengaged employees “withdraw and defend themselves physically, cognitively, or emotionally during role performances”. This perspective is echoed by Bakker et al. (
2004, p. 84) who state that it involves an “emotional, cognitive, and behavioural rejection of the job”. As a result, disengaged employees not only perceive that their work tasks are routine, but they also conduct tasks in a mechanical manner or engage in withdrawal behaviours (Demerouti et al.
2001).
Limited attention has been directed towards disengagement and its antecedents (Pech and Slade
2006; Hejjas et al.
2019). This is relevant because recently, it has been suggested that engagement and disengagement are “not opposites” and that different factors could drive or inhibit each construct (Hejjas et al.
2019, p. 329). Indeed, as argued by Macey and Schneider (
2008), the opposite of engagement is likely to be “non-engagement”, not disengagement. Therefore, whilst it has been documented that ethical leadership is positively linked to work engagement (Chughtai et al.
2015; Demirtas
2015), it cannot necessarily be inferred that it limits disengagement. Nor that the strategies ethical leaders use to promote work engagement are necessarily the same strategies that reduce disengagement. As a result, this study investigates whether ethical leadership is negatively related to disengagement and considers why such a relationship may exist.
Based on Henderson and Argyle’s (
1986) social rules theory (SRT), we propose that ethical leadership leads to reduced levels of disengagement and consequently improved employee attitudes. SRT states that in working relationships, shared expectations exist regarding behaviour that should or should not be performed in specific situations (Argyle et al.
1981). These shared expectations are known as social rules, which Henderson and Argyle (
1986, p. 260) describe as “behaviour which members of a group or subculture believe should or should not be performed, either in certain situations or in a range of situations”. The theory postulates that violation or non-compliance with these rules is more likely to be associated with reduced wellbeing and negative employee attitudes, whereas rule compliance will be associated with improved employee wellbeing and positive attitudes (Henderson and Argyle
1986).
SRT asserts that there are a number of universal social rules, which are appropriate in every social situation, such as being friendly, polite, respecting privacy, and maintaining eye contact (Argyle et al.
1981). However, some social rules also vary according to context. For example, Henderson and Argyle (
1986) proposed a number of social rules that are unique to the relationship between leaders and their subordinates. These include giving clear guidance to subordinates, organising work efficiently, looking after subordinates’ welfare and acting with fairness. These social rules align with the nature of ethical leadership, which involves displaying normatively appropriate conduct in personal interactions to the benefit of subordinates. Ethical leaders care for their employees, support them, treat them fairly, and with respect (Brown et al.
2005). They consolidate “a general, consistent moral character with a focus on organizational or cultural norms, standards, and rule compliance” (Lemoine et al.
2019, p. 151). Therefore, they are more likely to enhance employee wellbeing and reduce disengagement. Previous research provides support for these assumptions. For example, Mo and Shi (
2017) found that ethical leadership was negatively related to burnout. Similarly, Chughtai et al. (
2015) found that ethical leadership reduced emotional exhaustion. We, therefore, expect ethical leadership to reduce disengagement.
As disengagement involves cognitively, emotionally, and behaviourally distancing oneself from work (Rathi and Lee
2016), reducing or limiting disengagement should alter how employees view their job and organisation. Specifically, we argue that when ethical leaders are able to reduce or limit disengagement, the extent to which employees wish to leave their organisation will also be limited. This is because when attempting to cope with the demands of a workplace, disengaged employees adopt avoidance based coping behaviours, such as withdrawal (Pienaar and Bester
2011; Rathi and Lee
2016). One of the cognitive manifestations of withdrawal involves thinking about quitting ones job (Lachman and Diamant
1987). Therefore leaders who are able to reduce disengagement should in turn limit the extent to which employees think about quitting.
We also contend that reducing or limiting disengagement should be associated with higher levels of job satisfaction and organisational commitment. When ethical leaders are able to maintain low levels of follower disengagement, employees should have more energy to devote to their tasks, which should result in higher levels of job satisfaction as tasks will not seem so monotonous. Disengagement should also be negatively associated with organisational commitment. Previous research has drawn on Conservation of Resources theory (Hobfoll
1989) to explain the relationship between disengagement and commitment. Thanacoody et al. (
2014) found that disengagement mediated the relationship between emotional exhaustion and affective commitment. The authors suggested that disengaged employees have less resources and energy to commit to their organisations. As a result, when disengagement is limited, employees can invest energy in their job or exert effort on behalf of the organisation (Sun and Pan
2008; Rathi and Lee
2016). We, therefore, argue that by reducing disengagement, ethical leadership will have an indirect effect on job satisfaction, organisational commitment, and turnover intentions.
The Moderating Role of Co-worker Social Undermining
Co-worker social undermining refers to intentional behaviour from co-workers that reduces another employee’s ability to maintain good relationships, success, and a positive reputation at work (Duffy et al.
2002). In developing the construct for the workplace, Duffy et al. (
2002) highlighted three core characteristics. Firstly, behaviour is only considered undermining if it is perceived as intentional by the target. This differentiates social undermining from other forms of workplace aggression, such as bullying, incivility, and abusive supervision, which can occur in the absence of ill-intent (Hershcovis
2011). Secondly, social undermining behaviours may not be harmful if they occur rarely, but their impact is cumulative in that they damage relationships in an iterative manner. Thirdly, social undermining is examined from the target’s perspective. Accordingly, there may be perceptual differences between the perpetrator and target over whether behaviour was intended to harm. The nature of undermining behaviour is varied, in that it may be direct (e.g. overt belittling), or indirect (e.g. withholding information). Furthermore, Duffy et al. (
2002) differentiated co-worker social undermining from supervisor social undermining, with the former enacted by one’s colleagues and the latter by one’s supervisor.
We draw upon SRT to argue that when co-worker social undermining behaviour is experienced by followers of an ethical leader, the negative relationship between ethical leadership and disengagement is weakened. SRT states that besides social rules that guide the relationship between leaders and their subordinates, there are also rules which govern the relationships between co-workers, including accepting a fair share of the work, helping when asked and seeking to repay debts, favours and compliments. Henderson and Argyle (
1986) also confirmed empirically that the common universal rules were highly endorsed for relationships between colleagues, such as not criticising each other publicly and standing up for a colleague when they are not present to defend themselves.
Co-worker social undermining is a particularly appropriate form of workplace aggression to examine as a rule-breaking behaviour for two reasons. Firstly, unlike other forms of workplace aggression, including bullying, incivility, and conflict, social undermining is perceived to be enacted intentionally (Hershcovis
2011). As a result, it is an overt form of rule-breaking behaviour, in that the target perceives that a co-worker has intentionally violated the rules that govern appropriate behaviour. Secondly, most other workplace aggression variables do not specify the source of the mistreatment within their measures (Hershcovis
2011), which means that they may have been enacted by a leader. Co-worker social undermining is explicitly enacted by one’s colleagues, which allows us to determine whether the social rules were broken by a source other than the ethical leader.
We contend that ethical leaders seek to establish work and group contexts where the social rules governing relationships between colleagues are upheld. Ethical leaders shape follower behaviour by using reward and punishment to clarify ethical expectations (Brown and Treviño
2006). Therefore, when social undermining occurs within their work group, one would expect an ethical leader to use transactional leadership principles by punishing the perpetrator. At the same time, ethical leaders will role model appropriate forms of behaviour and reward those that treat colleagues in an ethical manner (Den Hartog
2015). Theoretically, this should mean that social undermining rarely occurs under ethical leaders, and when it does, an ethical leader would intervene to prevent the behaviour reoccurring. Indeed, studies have shown that certain leadership styles, including transformational and transactional leadership are related to decreased levels of workplace aggression (Astrauskaite et al.
2015; Ertureten et al.
2013). However, research on the antecedents of social undermining has shown that there are a number of causal factors which are beyond a leader’s control, including bottom line mentality (Greenbaum et al.
2012) and moral disengagement (Duffy et al.
2012). Therefore it is possible that social undermining will occur under the supervision of ethical leaders (Taylor and Pattie
2014).
There are two potential ways in which social undermining can weaken the negative relationship between ethical leadership and disengagement. Firstly, social undermining can be perpetrated by other employees who are also supervised by the ethical leader. When this occurs, one would expect the ethical leader to intervene to prevent further undermining behaviour. Yet, despite this, the target may still experience heightened disengagement after the incident. This is because, when an act of social undermining occurs under an ethical leader, it is a more flagrant breach of social rules than when it occurs under other forms of leadership. Duffy et al. (
2006) showed that the impact of social undermining is stronger when it only occurs rarely in the workgroup. They argued that this occurs partly due to the discordance between-group norms and personal experiences, as perceived violations arose less negative reactions when the group norm is more tolerant of violations (Leung and Tong
2003). This can be explained by fairness theory as employees cognitively compare their own treatment against that of their co-workers (Folger and Cropanzano
1998). If one’s co-workers are also experiencing social undermining, the victim is less likely to feel that the perpetrator could have acted differently, which affects how strongly a person reacts to the treatment. However, when one’s co-workers have not experienced social undermining, the victim is more likely to feel that the perpetrator could have acted according to the social rules set out by the ethical leader. Duffy et al. (
2006, p. 108) state that this is important, because “being singled out creates a more mutable and feasible cognitive comparison and a more damaging context for social undermining”. Therefore the victim is much more likely to experience disengagement.
Secondly, social undermining can be perpetrated by other organisational members who are not under the supervision of ethical leaders, or by others more senior than the ethical leader in the organisational hierarchy. This may particularly be the case in large organisations where there are many layers of management. Other organisational members may be supervised by leaders who do not encourage norms of appropriate conduct towards others. Therefore, they may be more inclined to engage in social undermining behaviour towards colleagues, and particularly towards those who they see as out group members (Ramsay et al.
2011). Nonetheless, all organisational members remain bound by the social rules that govern relationships between co-workers, and targets will still perceive social undermining as rule-breaking behaviour. In such situations, the relationship between ethical leadership and disengagement is still likely to be weakened by social undermining, as the ethical leader has not been able to protect their subordinate’s welfare. Therefore the leader/subordinate specific social rule “look after subordinates’ welfare” will have been broken. Indeed, several studies suggest that ethical leaders act to protect their followers (Bhal and Dadhich
2011; Kalshoven et al.
2013b), which means that failure to protect followers from harm will be particularly salient.
When social rules are broken it results in dissatisfaction for the target (Henderson and Argyle
1986).This dissatisfaction is likely to be felt especially strongly by followers of ethical leaders, because these leaders create conditions where followers expect social rules to be upheld. As a result, when rules are violated, the negative relationship between ethical leadership and disengagement is likely to be weakened, because rule-breaking behaviour serves to undermine the leader’s influence and ability to prevent disengagement. In this respect, co-worker social undermining and rule breaking more generally may be seen as leadership neutralizers, which counteract the effectiveness of leadership by making it impossible for the leader to exert influence (Kerr and Jermier
1978). We, therefore, pose the following hypotheses:
Based on hypotheses 1 and 2, we posit that when co-worker undermining is high, the mediated relationships between ethical leadership and employee attitudes via disengagement will be weaker.