Top

The International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment

Published in:

10-05-2024 | LCA FOR AGRICULTURE.

Factors influencing the carbon footprint of rice production in Northeastern Vietnam

Authors: Nguyen Thi Bich Yen, Akihiko Kamoshita

Published in: The International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment | Issue 9/2024

Activate our intelligent search to find suitable subject content or patents.

search-config

AI-assisted search

Off

Abstract

Purpose

Rice production in Northeastern Vietnam is livelihood-oriented with a small farm size in the northern mountainous and midlands region. This study aims to determine the contribution of agronomic and input factors to the total carbon (C) footprint of rice production to identify solutions that can reduce greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions in agriculture in this region.

Methods

We used a life cycle assessment method for the C footprint of rice production from planting to harvesting. Agronomic parameters and input data in both spring and summer crops were collected through interviews conducted with 50 rice-farming households in the Quang Minh commune, Viet Yen district, Bac Giang province, using questionnaires. Additionally, in-depth interviews were conducted to gather information on energy used for land preparation and harvesting.

Results and discussion

The C footprint per hectare and per tonne of grain of the summer rice crop (15.6 ± 3.3 t CO₂-eq/ha, 2.34 ± 0.54 t CO₂-eq/t) was significantly higher than that of the spring crop (9.5 ± 1.8 t CO₂-eq/ha, 1.3 ± 0.26 t CO₂-eq/t). GHG emissions were due mainly to direct methane emissions during rice growth, accounting for 89.5% of the total C footprint of the summer crop and 80.5% of that of the spring crop. Fertilizer emissions also contributed significantly, accounting for 5.4% and 10.4%, respectively, nearly 75% from N-fertilizer emissions. A higher C footprint (per grain basis) was generally associated with straw incorporation, continuous flooded irrigation, longer rice growth duration, and lower rice yield, indicating the importance of agronomic management of crop residues, water and nutrients, choice of varieties, and growing seasons. Small farm size did not lead to higher carbon intensity.

Conclusions

The solutions to avoid direct incorporation of rice straw, to conduct intermittent irrigation, to reduce the amount of N-fertilizer, and to use short-duration rice varieties (especially for summer crop) with high yield potential along with optimal agronomic management practices should be highlighted. Greater adoption of these measures will contribute significantly to reducing the C footprint of rice production in Northeastern Vietnam.

previous article Life cycle assessment of conventional and organic Arabica coffees: from farm to pack

next article Sustainable astronomy: A comparative life cycle assessment of off-grid hybrid energy systems to supply large telescopes

Dont have a licence yet? Then find out more about our products and how to get one now:

Springer Professional "Wirtschaft+Technik"

Online-Abonnement

Mit Springer Professional "Wirtschaft+Technik" erhalten Sie Zugriff auf:

über 102.000 Bücher
über 537 Zeitschriften

aus folgenden Fachgebieten:

Automobil + Motoren
Bauwesen + Immobilien
Business IT + Informatik
Elektrotechnik + Elektronik
Energie + Nachhaltigkeit
Finance + Banking
Management + Führung
Marketing + Vertrieb
Maschinenbau + Werkstoffe
Versicherung + Risiko

Jetzt Wissensvorsprung sichern!

inform now

Springer Professional "Technik"

Online-Abonnement

Mit Springer Professional "Technik" erhalten Sie Zugriff auf:

über 67.000 Bücher
über 390 Zeitschriften

aus folgenden Fachgebieten:

Automobil + Motoren
Bauwesen + Immobilien
Business IT + Informatik
Elektrotechnik + Elektronik
Energie + Nachhaltigkeit
Maschinenbau + Werkstoffe

Jetzt Wissensvorsprung sichern!

inform now

Available only for authorised users

Abid AA, Zhang Q, Adil MF, Batool I, Abbas M, Hassan Z, Khan AA, Castellano-Hinojosa A, Zaidi SHR, Di H, Abdeslsalam NR (2022) Nitrogen optimization coupled with alternate wetting and drying practice enhances rhizospheric nitrifier and denitrifier abundance and rice productivity. Front in Plant Sci. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpls.2022.927229CrossRef

Alhajj Ali S, Tedone L, De Mastro G (2015) Optimization of the environmental performance of rainfed durum wheat by adjusting the management practices. J Cleaner Prod 87:105–118. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2014.09.029CrossRef

Alhajj Ali S, Tedone L, Verdini L, De Mastro G (2017) Effect of different crop management systems on rainfed durum wheat greenhouse gas emissions and C footprint under Mediterranean conditions. J Cleaner Prod 140:608–621. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2016.04.135CrossRef

Allen J, Pascual KS, Romasanta RR, Trinh MV, Thach TV, Van Hung Nguyen, Sander BO, Chivenge P (2020) Rice straw management effects on greenhouse gas emissions and mitigation options. In: Gummert M, Hung N, Chivenge P, Douthwaite B (eds) Sustainable rice straw management. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-32373-8_9CrossRef

Arunrat N, Sereenonchai S, Chaowiwat W, Wang C, Hatano R (2022) Carbon, nitrogen and water footprints of organic rice and conventional rice production over 4 years of cultivation: a case study in the lower north of Thailand. Agronomy 12(2):380. https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy12020380CrossRef

Audsley E, Stacey K, Parsons DJ, Williams A (2009) Estimation of the greenhouse gas emissions from agricultural pesticide manufacture and use. Cranfield University

BSI (British Standards Institute) (2011) The Guide to PAS 2050:2011- How to carbon footprint your products, identify hotspots and reduce emissions in your supply chain. BSI, London

Connor M, Malabayabas AJB, de Guia AH, Wehmeyer H, Pame ARP, Htwe NM, Zhong X, Fu Y, Liang K, Pan J, Hu X, Liu Y, Subekti NA, Sembiring H, Pustika AB, Hutapea, Sudarmaji Y, Raharjo B, Girsang SS, Syahri, Girsang MA, Sumantri RU, Widyayanti S, Singleton GR, Tuan LA (2023) Environmental, social, and economic challenges in lowland rice production. In: Connor M, Gummert M, Singleton GR (eds) Closing rice yield gaps in Asia: innovations, scaling, and policies for environmentally sustainable lowland rice production. Springer Nature Switzerland, Cham, pp 27–92CrossRef

DCC (Department of Climate Change) (2019) CO₂ emission factor of Vietnam’s electricity grid according to Decision No. 330/BĐKH-GNPT dated March 29, 2019 (In Vietnamese). Department of Climate Change, Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment, Vietnam. Available online at: http://www.dcc.gov.vn/van-ban-phap-luat/1054/Nghien-cuu,-xay-dung-he-so-phat-thai-(EF)-cua-luoi-dien-Viet-Nam-(K%C3%A8m-CV-330/BDKH-GNPT). Accessed 12 Mar 2023

ET (Energy Team) (2023) Conversion of fuel used to CO₂ emission factors. Energy Conservation and Development Center. Available online at: http://enerteam.org/quy-doi-nang-luong-sang-toe.html. Accessed 16 Apr 2023

FAO (2017) Global database of GHG emissions related to feed crops: a life cycle inventory. Version 1. Livestock Environmental Assessment and Performance Partnership. Rome, Italy, FAO. Available online at: https://www.fao.org/3/i8275e/i8275e.pdf. Accessed 14 May 2023

Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations Statistics (FAOSTAT) (2023) Crops and livestock products. Available online at: https://www.fao.org/faostat/en/#data/QCL. Accessed 29 Sept 2023

Giuliana V, Lucia M, Marco R, Simone V (2022) Environmental life cycle assessment of rice production in northern Italy: a case study from Vercelli. Int J LCA. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11367-022-02109-xCrossRef

GSO (General Statistic Office of Vietnam) (2021) Planted area of paddy by province. Available online at: https://www.gso.gov.vn/en/statistical-data/. Accessed 6 Jul 2023

Harun SN, Hanafiah MM, Aziz NIHA (2021) An LCA-based environmental performance of rice production for developing a sustainable agri-food system in Malaysia. Environ Manag 67:146–161. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00267-020-01365-7CrossRef

Hung NV, An NTH, Singleton GR, Connor M (2023) Carbon footprint reduction from closing rice yield gaps. In: Connor M, Gummert M, Singleton GR (eds) Closing rice yield gaps in Asia: innovations, scaling, and policies for environmentally sustainable lowland rice production. Springer Nature Switzerland, Cham, pp 149–176CrossRef

IPCC (2006) IPCC guidelines for national GHG inventories. Available online at: https://www.ipcc-nggip.iges.or.jp/public/2006gl/index.html. Accessed 15 May 2023

IPCC (2014) Climate change 2014: synthesis report: contribution of working group I, II and III to the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel of Climate Change, Geneva, Switzerland, pp 151. Available online at: https://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar5/syr/. Accessed 15 Apr 2023

IPCC (2019) 2019 refinement to the 2006- IPCC guidelines for national greenhouse gas inventories, volume 4: agriculture, forestry and other land use (AFOLU). Available online at: https://www.ipcc-nggip.iges.or.jp/public/2019rf/vol4.html. Accessed 27 Oct 2023

IPCC (2023) AR6 Synthesis Report: SYR Longer Report. Available online at: https://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar6/syr/longer-report. Accessed 12 Aug 2023

Jain N, Pathak H, Mitra S, Bhatia A (2004) Emission of methane from rice fields - a review. J Sci Ind Res 63:101–115. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-021-13935-1CrossRef

Jimmy AN, Khan NA, Hossain MN, Sujauddin M (2017) Evaluation of the environmental impacts of rice paddy production using life cycle assessment: case study in Bangladesh. Model Earth Syst and Envion 3:1691–1705. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40808-017-0368-yCrossRef

Kashyap D, Agarwal T (2021) Carbon footprint and water footprint of rice and wheat production in Punjab. India Agri Syst 186:102959. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.agsy.2020.102959CrossRef

Kool A, Marinussen M, Blonk, H (2012) LCI data for the calculation tool Feedprint for greenhouse gas emissions of feed production and utilization: GHG emissions of N, P, and K fertilizer production. Blonk Consultants. Available online at: https://blonksustainability.nl/news-and-publications/publications. Accessed 5 Mar 2024

Leon A, Izumi T (2022) Impacts of alternate wetting and drying on rice farmers’ profits and life cycle greenhouse gas emissions in An Giang Province in Vietnam. J Cleaner Prod 354:131621. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2022.131621CrossRef

Luyen P and Kamoshita A (2023) On-farm agronomic manipulations to improve rice (Oryza sativa L.) production in the saline coastal zone of the Red River Delta in Vietnam. Plant Prod Sci. https://doi.org/10.1080/1343943X.2023.2215448

MARD (Minstry of Agriculture and Rural Development of Vietnam) (2022) Guidelines for elaboration of economic - technical norms in the management and exploitation of irrigation works (in Vietnamese). Circular 27/2022/TT-NNPTNT issued on 30 December 2022. Available online at: https://thuvienphapluat.vn/van-ban/Linh-vuc-khac/Thong-tu-27-2022-TT-BNNPTNT-xay-dung-dinh-muc-kinh-te-ky-thuat-khai-thac-cong-trinh-thuy-loi-551320.aspx. Accessed 20 Jun 2023

Masuda K (2019) Eco-efficiency assessment of intensive rice production in Japan: joint application of life cycle assessment and data envelopment analysis. Sustainability 11(19):5368. https://doi.org/10.3390/su11195368CrossRef

Mbow C, Rosenzweig C, Barioni LG, Benton TG, Herrero M, Krishnapillai M et al. (2019) Food security. climate change land: an IPCC special report on climate change, desertification, land degredation, sustainable land management, food security, GHG fluxes in terrestrial ecosystems. In: Shukla JSPR, Calvo Buendia E, Masson-Delmotte V, Pörtner HO, Roberts DC et al (eds). Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change

Mishra A, Ketelaar JW, Uphoff N, Whitten M (2021) Food security and climate-smart agriculture in the lower Mekong basin of Southeast Asia: evaluating impacts of system of rice intensification with special reference to rainfed agriculture. Inter J Agri Sustain 19(2):152–174. https://doi.org/10.1080/14735903.2020.1866852CrossRef

MONRE (Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment of Vietnam) (2022) List of GHG emission coefficients for GHG inventory according to Decision No. 2626 of the Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment, Vietnam (In Vietnamese). Available online at: https://monre.gov.vn/VanBan/Pages/ChiTietVanBanChiDao.aspx?pID=2787. Accessed 10 Feb 2023

Morandini NP, Petroudi ER, Mobasser HR, Dastan S (2020) Life cycle assessment of crop rotation systems on rice cultivars in Northern Iran. Inter J Plant Prod 14:531–548. https://doi.org/10.1007/s42106-020-00103-7CrossRef

Mungkung R, Pengthamkeerati P, Chaichana R, Watcharothai S, Kitpakornsanti K, Tapananont S (2019) Life cycle assessment of Thai organic Hom Mali rice to evaluate the climate change, water use and biodiversity impacts. J Cleaner Prod 211:687–694. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2018.11.197CrossRef

Nguyen YTB, Kamoshita A, Dinh VTH, Matsuda H, Kurokura H (2017) Salinity intrusion and rice production in Red River Delta under changing climate conditions. Paddy and Water Env 15(1):37–48. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10333-016-0526-2CrossRef

Nguyen Van H, Sander BO, Quilty J, Balingbing C, Castalone AG, Romasanta R, Alberto MCR, Sandro JM, Jamieson C, Gummert M (2019) An assessment of irrigated rice production energy efficiency and environmental footprint with in-field and off-field rice straw management practices. Sci Rep 9(1):16887. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-019-53072-xCrossRef

Nguyen VH, Detras MC, Migo M, Quilloy R, Balingbing C, Chivenge P, Gummert M (2020a) Rice straw overview: availability, properties, and management practices. In: Gummert M, Hung N, Chivenge P, Douthwaite B (eds) Sustainable rice straw management. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-32373-8_1CrossRef

Nguyen VH, Migo M, Quilloy R, Chivenge P, Gummert M (2020b) Life cycle assessment applied in rice production and residue management. In: Gummert M, Hung N, Chivenge P, Douthwaite B (eds) Sustainable rice straw management. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-32373-8_10CrossRef

Paramesh V, Kumar P, Parajuli R, Francaviglia R, Manohara KK, Arunachalam V, Mayekar T, Toraskar S (2023) A life cycle assessment of rice–rice and rice–cowpea cropping systems in the west coast of India. Land 12(2):502. https://doi.org/10.3390/land12020502CrossRef

Rahman AMH, Chen SS, Abdul Razak PR, Abu Bakar NA, Shahrun MS, Zin Zawawi N, Muhamad Mujab AA, Abdullah F, Jumat F, Kamaruzaman R, Saidon SA, Abdul Talib SA (2019) Life cycle assessment in conventional rice farming system: estimation of greenhouse gas emissions using cradle-to-gate approach. J Cleaner Prod 212:1526–1535. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2018.12.062CrossRef

Shabir I, Dash KK, Dar AH, Pandey VK, Fayaz U, Srivastava S, R N, (2023) Carbon footprints evaluation for sustainable food processing system development: a comprehensive review. Future Foods 7:100215. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fufo.2023.100215CrossRef

Shen X, Zhang L, Zhang J (2021) Ratoon rice production in central China: Environmental sustainability and food production. Sci of the Total Env 764:142850. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.142850CrossRef

Shew AM, Durand-Morat A, Putman B, Nalley LL, Ghosh A (2019) Rice intensification in Bangladesh improves economic and environmental welfare. Env Sci & Policy 95:46–57. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envsci.2019.02.004CrossRef

Shrivastava A, Tchale H, Cao BT, Elabed G, Kar A, Kieu HTP, Nguyen HTT (2022) Vietnam - spearheading Vietnam’s green agricultural transformation: moving to low-carbon rice. https://doi.org/10.1596/38074

Thanh PT, Khanh NT, Tu DX, Hieu DT, Xen NT, Tuan NT and Thuan HN (2020) Improving nitrogen fertilizer efficiency in rice cultivation in Red River Delta (In Vietnameses). Vietnam J Sci Tech Engineer 5(114):8–15. Available online at: https://tapchi.vaas.vn/sites/tapchi.vaas.vn/files/tapchi/2020-10/Bai%202_So%205-2020.pdf. Accessed 10 May 2023

Tho LCB, Umetsu C (2022) Rice variety and sustainable farming: a case study in the Mekong Delta. Vietnam Env Challenges 8:100532. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envc.2022.100532CrossRef

Tran TQ, Vu HV (2019) Land fragmentation and household income: first evidence from rural Vietnam. Land Use Policy 89:104247. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.landusepol.2019.104247CrossRef

Trong Hung D, Hughes HJ, Keck M, Sauer D (2019) Rice-residue management practices of smallholder farms in Vietnam and their effects on nutrient fluxes in the soil-plant system. Sustainability. https://doi.org/10.3390/su11061641CrossRef

Van V, Hoang A (2023) Reducing emissions in rice cultivation green fields lush with life thanks to microbial products. Available online at: https://vietnamagriculture.nongnghiep.vn/green-fields-lush-with-life-thanks-to-microbial-products-d357913.html. Accessed 7 Nov 2023

VDPC (Viet Yen District People Committee) (2021) Annual report on socio-economic and natural status of Viet Yen district, Bac Giang province (in Vietnamese)

VEECOM (2019) Tool for converting energy unit. Vietnam energy efficiency community. Available online at: https://veecom.vn/tools/chuyen-doi-don-vi-nang-luong-15. Accessed 16 Apr 2023

Vo TBT, Wassmann R, Mai VT, Vu DQ, Bui TPL, Vu TH, Dinh QH, Yen BT, Asch F, Sander BO (2020) Methane emission factors from Vietnamese rice production: pooling data of 36 field sites for meta-analysis. Climate 8:74. https://doi.org/10.3390/cli8060074CrossRef

Xu Q, Li J, Liang H, Ding Z, Shi X, Chen Y, Dou Z, Dai Q, Gao H (2022) Coupling life cycle assessment and global sensitivity analysis to evaluate the uncertainty and key processes associated with carbon footprint of rice production in Eastern China. Front in Plant Sci. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpls.2022.990105CrossRef

Xue J-F, Pu C, Liu S-L, Zhao X, Zhang R, Chen F, Xiao X-P, Zhang H-L (2016) Carbon and nitrogen footprint of double rice production in Southern China. Eco Indicators 64:249–257. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecolind.2016.01.001CrossRef

Yamaguchi T, Luu MT, Minamikawa K, Shigeki Y (2016) Alternate wetting and drying (AWD) irrigation technology uptake in rice paddies of the Mekong Delta, Vietnam: relationship between local conditions and the practiced technology. Asian and Afri Area Stu 15(2):234–256. https://doi.org/10.14956/asafas.15.234CrossRef

Yan M, Luo T, Bian R, Cheng K, Pan G, Rees R (2015) A comparative study on carbon footprint of rice production between household and aggregated farms from Jiangxi. China Environ Monit Assess 187(6):332. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10661-015-4572-9CrossRef

Yodkhum S, Sampattagul S, Gheewala SH (2018) Energy and environmental impact analysis of rice cultivation and straw management in Northern Thailand. Env Sci and Pollut Research 25(18):17654–17664CrossRef

Yvon-Durocher G, Allen AP, Bastviken D, Conrad R, Gudasz C, St-Pierre A, Thanh-Duc N, del Giorgio PA (2014) Methane fluxes show consistent temperature dependence across microbial to ecosystem scales. Nature 507:488–491. https://doi.org/10.1038/nature13164CrossRef

Zhang D, Shen J, Zhang F, Li Y, e., and Zhang, W. (2017) Carbon footprint of grain production in China. Sci Rep 7:4126. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-017-04182-xCrossRef

Title: Factors influencing the carbon footprint of rice production in Northeastern Vietnam
Authors: Nguyen Thi Bich Yen
Akihiko Kamoshita
Publication date: 10-05-2024
Publisher: Springer Berlin Heidelberg
Published in: The International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment / Issue 9/2024
Print ISSN: 0948-3349
Electronic ISSN: 1614-7502
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11367-024-02308-8

Life cycle assessment of conventional and organic Arabica coffees: from farm to pack

LCA FOR AGRICULTURE

Correction: Requirements for comparative life cycle assessment studies for single-use and reusable packaging and products: recommendation for decision and policy-makers

Correction

Reduction potential of German environmental food impacts due to a planetary health diet

LCA FOR ENERGY SYSTEMS AND FOOD PRODUCTS

Life cycle assessment as a driver for process optimisation of cellobiose lipids fermentation and purification

Open Access
GREEN CHEMISTRY

A parametric approach for developing embodied environmental benchmark values for buildings

Open Access
BUILDING COMPONENTS AND BUILDINGS

Enabling comprehensive assessment of marine eutrophication impacts and their evaluation against regional safe operating space

Open Access
LIFE CYCLE SUSTAINABILITY ASSESSMENT