Ferroalloys

Frontmatter

Chapter 1. Physicochemical Fundamentals of Ferroalloy Processes

Abstract

Ferroalloy processes are based on the laws of physical chemistry, and more specifically, on the laws of chemical thermodynamics (thermochemistry) and chemical kinetics (thermokinetics). The laws of chemical thermodynamics with the help of a mathematical apparatus allow us to solve problems and get answers to questions: can this or that reaction proceed at specific given process parameters (temperature T and pressure P) and, if so, in which direction it will go. Thus, the laws of chemical thermodynamics determine the possibility and direction of a chemical reaction at given process parameters. The laws of chemical kinetics make it possible to estimate, according to well-known analytical dependencies, the time during which a given reaction can change from a non-equilibrium to an equilibrium state when the process parameters (T, P) change.

Mikhail Gasik, Viktor Dashevskii, Aitber Bizhanov

Chapter 2. Phase Equilibria in Metal and Oxide Ferroalloy Systems

Abstract

When developing new and improving existing technological processes for the production of ferroalloys, data on phase equilibria in binary, ternary and more complex systems of metals, oxides, nitrides and others are important.

Mikhail Gasik, Viktor Dashevskii, Aitber Bizhanov

Chapter 3. Classification of Ferroalloy Processes

Abstract

According to the modern classification, metals are divided into two main groups: ferrous and non-ferrous.

Mikhail Gasik, Viktor Dashevskii, Aitber Bizhanov

Chapter 4. Metallurgy of Silicon and Silicon Carbide

Abstract

Silicon belongs to VIa group of the Periodic Table of Elements, atomic number 14, atomic mass 28.08, electron shell configuration 3s²3p², exhibits oxidation state +4 (the most stable), +3, +2 and +1. The melting point of silicon is 1415 °C; the boiling point is 3250 °C. The silicon crystal lattice is cubic, face-centered diamond type. The affinity of the silicon atom to the electron is 1.22 eV, Pauling electronegativity is 1.8, the atomic radius is 0.133 nm, and the ionic radius is Si4⁺ 0.040 nm (coordination number 4), covalent radius 0.1175 nm.

Mikhail Gasik, Viktor Dashevskii, Aitber Bizhanov

Chapter 5. Metallurgy of Ferrosilicon

Abstract

Ferrosilicon assortment. Ferrosilicon is a large group of alloys of the iron–silicon system and is intended for deoxidation and alloying of steel. It is widely used in the foundry industry in the production of castings from iron and steel.

Mikhail Gasik, Viktor Dashevskii, Aitber Bizhanov

Chapter 6. Metallurgy of Manganese Ferroalloys

Abstract

Manganese-element of the VIIb group of the Periodic system of elements. Atomic number of manganese 25, atomic mass 54.93, configuration of the outer electron shell of the atom 3d⁵4s², oxidation state from 2 to 7, the most stable are Mn²⁺ and Mn⁴⁺. Four cubic crystalline modifications of manganese are known: α-Mn modification, density 7.44 g/cm³, is stable below 710 °C; at 727–1090 °C—β-Mn, density 7.29 g/cm³; at 1090–1138 °C–γ-Mn, density 6.37 g/cm³; above 1138 °C—δ-Mn, density 6.28 g/cm³.

Mikhail Gasik, Viktor Dashevskii, Aitber Bizhanov

Chapter 7. Metallurgy of Chromium Ferroalloys

Abstract

Chromium—element of the VIb group of the Periodic system of elements. Atomic number 24; atomic mass 51.996; electronic configuration 3d⁵4s¹; melting point 1907 °C and boiling point 2671 °C; density 7.19 g/cm³; oxidation state 2, 3 and 6. Chromium has a body-centered cubic lattice and does not have allotropy. Liquid and solid chromium has a relatively high vapor pressure.

Mikhail Gasik, Viktor Dashevskii, Aitber Bizhanov

Chapter 8. Metallurgy of Ferrotungsten

Abstract

Tungsten was discovered and isolated in the form of tungsten anhydride WO₃ in 1781 by the Swedish chemist C. Scheele from the tungsten mineral, later called scheelite. The tungsten content in the earth’s crust is 10⁻⁴%. Ferrotungsten was first obtained in 1893 by the aluminothermic method.

Mikhail Gasik, Viktor Dashevskii, Aitber Bizhanov

Chapter 9. Metallurgy of Ferromolybdenum

Abstract

Molybdenum belongs to the group of rare metals. It was discovered in 1782 by the Swedish chemist P. Gjelm, who isolated molybdenum acid. Its content in the earth’s crust is 1.1 × 10⁻⁴%.

Mikhail Gasik, Viktor Dashevskii, Aitber Bizhanov

Chapter 10. Metallurgy of Ferrovanadium

Abstract

Vanadium was discovered in 1801 by the Mexican mineralogist A. M. del Rio. The content of vanadium in the earth’s crust is 0.015%; it is a fairly common, but dispersed element in rocks and minerals.

Mikhail Gasik, Viktor Dashevskii, Aitber Bizhanov

Chapter 11. Metallurgy of Ferrotitanium

Abstract

Metallic titanium was obtained only in 1910 by the American scientist M.A. Hunter. According to the content in the earth’s crust, titanium takes the tenth place (0.57%); it is more than manganese, chromium, vanadium copper and some other metals.

Mikhail Gasik, Viktor Dashevskii, Aitber Bizhanov

Chapter 12. Alkaline Earth Metal Ferroalloys

Abstract

Alkaline earth metals (AEM): beryllium, magnesium, calcium, strontium and barium belong to the IIA group of the Periodic system of elements.

Mikhail Gasik, Viktor Dashevskii, Aitber Bizhanov

Chapter 13. Metallurgy of Ferroniobium

Abstract

Niobium was discovered in 1801 by the English scientist C. Hatchet in a mineral found in Colombia and named by him Columbia.

Mikhail Gasik, Viktor Dashevskii, Aitber Bizhanov

Chapter 14. Ferrosilicozirconium and Ferro-Alumino-Zirconium

Abstract

Powdered zirconium was obtained in 1824 by J. Berzelius and plastic zirconium in 1925 by A. van Arkel and I. de Boer.

Mikhail Gasik, Viktor Dashevskii, Aitber Bizhanov

Chapter 15. Ferroaluminum and Silicoaluminum

Abstract

Aluminum was first obtained in 1854 by the French chemist A. E. Saint-Clair DeWillem reduction of Na₃AlCl₆ double chloride with sodium metal. In terms of prevalence in nature, aluminum occupies the third place after oxygen and silicon and the first among metals. Its content in the earth’s crust is 8.8%.

Mikhail Gasik, Viktor Dashevskii, Aitber Bizhanov

Chapter 16. Ferroboron and Boron Carbide

Abstract

For the first time, free boron was obtained in 1808 by Louis Joseph Gay-Lussac and Louis Jacques Tenard by heating B₂O₃ boron oxide with metallic potassium.

Mikhail Gasik, Viktor Dashevskii, Aitber Bizhanov

Chapter 17. Ferroalloys with Rare-Earth Metals

Abstract

According to the classification, rare-earth metals (REM) include lanthanum (z = 57), lanthanides (elements from cerium to lutetium, z = 58/71), as well as scandium (z = 21) and yttrium (z = 39). REM—elements of the third group of the Periodic system of elements.

Mikhail Gasik, Viktor Dashevskii, Aitber Bizhanov

Chapter 18. Iron–Carbon Alloys

Abstract

Iron was known in prehistoric times. A method for producing iron from ores was invented in the western part of Asia in the second millennium BC; after that, the use of iron spread to Babylon, Egypt, Greece—the Iron Age replaced the Bronze Age.

Mikhail Gasik, Viktor Dashevskii, Aitber Bizhanov

Chapter 19. Metallurgy of Ferronickel

Abstract

Nickel metal was first obtained in 1751 by the Swedish chemist A. Kronstedt, who proposed the name of the element. A much cleaner metal was obtained in 1804 by the German chemist I. Richter. The nickel content in the earth’s crust is 5.8 × 0⁻³%. The overwhelming majority of nickel is used to produce alloys with other metals (Fe, Cr, Cu, etc.) that are distinguished by high mechanical, heat-resistant, anti-corrosion, electrical and thermoelectric properties. A significant amount of nickel is consumed for the production of alkaline batteries and anti-corrosion coatings. Malleable nickel in its pure form is used for the manufacture of sheets, tubes, etc. Nickel is also used in the chemical industry for the production of special chemical equipment and as a catalyst for many chemical processes.

Mikhail Gasik, Viktor Dashevskii, Aitber Bizhanov

Chapter 20. Metallurgy of Cobalt

Abstract

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Mikhail Gasik, Viktor Dashevskii, Aitber Bizhanov

Chapter 21. Metallurgy of Ferrophosphorus

Abstract

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Mikhail Gasik, Viktor Dashevskii, Aitber Bizhanov

Chapter 22. Ferroselenium and Ferrotellurium

Abstract

Selenium was discovered by the Swedish chemist J. Berzelius in 1817. Selenium is a rare dispersed element, and its content in the earth’s crust is 6 × 10⁻⁵ %. Selenium and selenides are typical semiconductors. Selenium is used in electronics and electrical engineering in semiconductor devices, photocells, thermoalloys, and it is used for whitening and dyeing glass, to obtain wear-resistant rubber, to improve the workability of high alloy steels and alloys, as a catalyst and oxidizing agent in organic synthesis, as well as for the production of pigments and drugs. Selenium is obtained from sludges from electrolytic refining of copper, sulfuric acid and pulp and paper production.

Mikhail Gasik, Viktor Dashevskii, Aitber Bizhanov

Chapter 23. Metallurgy of Electrocorundum

Abstract

Corundum (α-Al₂O₃) is found in nature as a rock-forming material. Its deposits are known in the Urals, in Yakutia and other regions of Russia. Pure varieties of natural corundum contain 95–98% Al₂O₃, but they are rare. As a rule, natural corundum contains impurities that reduce its quality. Therefore, the need for mechanical engineering, metallurgy and other industries in corundum as an abrasive and alumina-containing material is met by an artificial corundum called electrocorundum.

Mikhail Gasik, Viktor Dashevskii, Aitber Bizhanov

Chapter 24. Electrofused Fluxes

Abstract

Electrofused fluxes obtained in specialized workshops of ferroalloy and metallurgical plants are widely used for electroslag remelting of steel and alloys, as well as in welding production. The method of electroslag remelting (ESR), the compositions of the fluxes and the technology for their preparation were developed by the Institute of Electric Welding named after E.O. Paton (National Academy of Sciences of Ukraine).

Mikhail Gasik, Viktor Dashevskii, Aitber Bizhanov

Chapter 25. Preparation of Charge Materials for Ferroalloys Smelting

Abstract

The use of fine and wet concentrates reduces the productivity of electric furnaces, worsens their technical and economic parameters and is unsafe for maintenance personnel.

Mikhail Gasik, Viktor Dashevskii, Aitber Bizhanov

Chapter 26. Ferroalloys Furnaces

Abstract

Ferroalloy production processes require high temperatures for their implementation and, in most cases, a concentration of heat in a limited furnace space. To the greatest extent, these conditions are met by heating devices using electric energy, called electric furnaces.

Mikhail Gasik, Viktor Dashevskii, Aitber Bizhanov

Chapter 27. Self-baking Electrodes

Abstract

At the end of the nineteenth century, the production of coal and graphite electrodes was started according to the Acheson method. A method of manufacturing continuous self-baking electrodes, the most widely used in ferroalloy and other ore-smelting furnaces, was developed in 1918 by the Norwegian engineer Søderberg.

Mikhail Gasik, Viktor Dashevskii, Aitber Bizhanov

Chapter 28. Ferroalloys Dispersion (Atomizing)

Abstract

Granular ferroalloys obtained by dispersing melts with air and water are widely used in various industries.

Mikhail Gasik, Viktor Dashevskii, Aitber Bizhanov

Chapter 29. Environmental Protection in Ferroalloys Industry

Abstract

The main tasks of environmental protection in the process of metallurgical production are.

Mikhail Gasik, Viktor Dashevskii, Aitber Bizhanov

Backmatter