9.1 Introduction
Family | Common Name | Number of Species | Distribution and Preferred Habitat |
---|---|---|---|
Dactylopteridae | Flying gurnards | 1 species | Benthic in shallow to moderate depths, sandy bottom |
Scorpaenidae | Scorpionfishes | 20–21 species in 9 genera | Sedentary benthic from the intertidal zone to 2,200 m |
Triglidae | Searobins | 14–15 species in 2 genera | Benthic on sandy to muddy bottom on continental and slopes |
Peristediidae | Armored searobins | 8–12 species in 1 genus | Benthic on continental and insular slopes |
Centropomidae | Snooks | 6 species in 1 genus | Catadromous |
Moronidae | Temperate basses | 3 species in 1 genus | Stenohaline or euryhaline and anadromous |
Acropomatidae | Temperate ocean-basses | 4 species in 2 genera | In water column between 87 and 910 m |
Howellidae | Not Available | 1 species in 1 genus | Pelagic or benthopelagic over outer continental shelves and slopes |
Serranidae
|
Seabasses
| 61–62 species in 20 genera | Benthic up to depths of 500 m, some hard bottom, and some soft bottom and sea-grass beds |
Grammatidae | Basslets | 2–3 species in 1–2 genera | Near ledges and drop-offs on deep reefs |
Opistognathidae | Jawfishes | 7–9 species in 2 genera | Sandy to muddy bottom near reefs from nearshore to 375 m deep |
Priacanthidae | Bigeyes | 3 species in 3 genera | Associated with reefs on continental shelves |
Apongonidae | Cardinalfishes | 15 species in 3 genera | Associated with rocky and coral reefs and sandy/weedy areas |
Epigonidae | Deepwater cardinalfishes | 6 species in 1 genus | Benthic pelagic in depths from 75 to 3,700 m over continental and insular slopes |
Malacanthidae
|
Tilefishes
| 6 species in 3 genera | Burrow in bottom from shoreline to 500 m |
Pomatomidae | Bluefishes | Monotypic | Continental shelves |
Echeneidae | Remoras | 8 species in 4 genera | Attachment to sharks, billfishes, rays, whales, dolphins, seabasses, jacks, and cobia |
Rachycentridae | Cobia | Monotypic | Pelagic, but also associated with coral reefs and man-made surface structures |
Coryphaenidae
|
Dolphinfishes
| 2 species in 1 genus | Epipelagic in oceanic waters and over continental shelves, associated with surface structures |
Carangidae
|
Jacks
| 28–29 species in 14–15 genera | Pelagic over continental and insular shelves |
Bramidae | Pomfrets | 5 species in 4 genera | Most pelagic between the surface and 600 m |
Caristidae | Manefishes | 1 species | Epipelagic to bathypelagic from 100 to 2,000 m |
Emmelichthyidae | Rovers | 2 species in 2 genera | Benthopelagic often found over drop-offs nearby islands and deep reefs |
Lutjanidae
|
Snappers
| 16–17 species in 6 genera | Most associated reefs on continental and insular shelves and slopes |
Symphysanodontidae | Not available | 1–2 species in 1 genus | Between depths of 50–500 m over continental and insular shelves and slopes |
Lobotidae | Tripletails | 1 species | Benthic and associated with coastal waters and estuaries |
Gerreidae | Mojarras | 12 species in 4 genera | Sandy to muddy bottoms in coastal waters and estuaries |
Haemulidae | Grunts | 18 species in 5 genera | Associated with coral reefs in coastal waters |
Inermiidae | Bonnetmouths | 1–2 species in 2 genera | Pelagic over continental and insular shelves |
Sparidae | Porgies | 16 species in 6 genera | Benthic on continental and insular shelves, coral reefs |
Polynemidae | Threadfins | 2–3 species in 1 genus | Shallow sandy to muddy bottom |
Sciaenidae
|
Drums
| 25–29 species in 14–15 genera | Sandy to muddy bottom in the coastal waters |
Mullidae | Goatfishes | 4 species in 4 genera | Benthic on continental and insular shelves |
Pempheridae | Sweepers | 1 species | On coral reefs and in caves or other cavities |
Bathyclupeidae | Not available | 2 species in 1 genus | mesopelagic and bathypelagic |
Chaetodontidae | Butterflyfishes | 6 species in 2 genera | Associated with coral reefs in shallow waters |
Pomacanthidae | Angelfishes | 6 species in 3 genera | Associated with coral reefs in shallow waters |
Kyphosidae | Sea chubs | 2 species in 1 genus | Associated with coral reefs and rocky areas in shallow waters |
Cirrhitidae | Hawkfishes | 1 species | Benthic in shallow waters |
Pomacentridae | Damselfishes | 14 species in 4 genera | Associated with coral reefs |
Labridae | Wrasses | 17–19 species in 8 genera | Most associated with coral reefs |
Scaridae | Parrotfishes | 14 species in 4 genera | Around coral reefs in shallow waters |
Zoarcidae | Eelpouts | 3 species in 3 genera | Benthic or benthopelagic or mesopelagic |
Chiamodontidae | Not available | Possibly 9–10 species in 4 genera | Mesopelagic and bathypelagic |
Percophidae | Flatheads | 2–3 species in 1 genus | Benthic from the outer continental shelf to the upper slope |
Uranoscopidae | Stargazers | 3 species in 3 genera | Benthic on the continental and insular shelves |
Tripterygiidae | Not Available | 4 species in 1 genus | Benthic and cryptic in shallow water |
Dactyloscopidae | Sand stargazers | 4–6 species in 3 genera | Benthic in sandy and reef habitats on continental and insular shelves |
Labrisomidae | Scaly blennies | 19–20 species in 5 genera | Benthic in coral and rocky reefs in shallow water |
Chaenopsidae | Tube blennies | 11–12 species in 6 genera | Benthic in rocky and coral reefs |
Blenniidae | Combtooth blennies | 14 species in 8 genera | Benthic in shallow marine water |
Gobiesocidae | Clingfishes | 2–3 species in 1–2 genera | From nearshore to 200 m, attaching to hard substrates and plants |
Callionymidae | Dragonets | 4 species in 3 genera | Benthic associated with sandy to muddy bottom and seagrass beds, some with coral reefs |
Draconettidae | Draconetts | 1 species | Outer continental and insular shelves and upper slopes |
Eleotridae | Sleepers | 5 species in 5 genera | Most benthic in fresh and brackish waters, some on coral reefs |
Gobiidae | Gobies | 58–62 species in 26 genera | Most benthic, some free-swimming, from shore to depths of 500 m, coral reefs |
Microdesmidae | Wormfishes | 4 species in 2 genera | Burrow into soft muddy and sandy bottom |
Ephippidae | Spadefishes | 1 species | Associated with coral reefs, artificial reefs, and rocky area |
Luvaridae | Louvars | 1 species | In oceanic waters between 200 and 600 m |
Acanthuridae | Surgeonfishes | 3 species in 1 genus | In coral and rocky reefs to a depth of about 100 m |
Scombrolabracidae | Not Available | Single species | Found in depths from 560 to 1,340 m in the northern and southern Gulf of Mexico |
Sphyraenidae | Barracudas | 3–4 species in 1 genus | Pelagic in neritic waters and associated with reefs and sea-grass beds |
Gempylidae | Snake mackerels | 9 species in 9 genera | Pelagic or benthopelagic in oceanic waters from 200 to 1,000 m |
Thichiuridae | Cutlassfishes | 5 species in 5 genera | Pelagic or benthopelagic in oceanic waters from the surface to 1,000 m |
Scombridae
|
Mackerels and tunas
| 14–15 species in 8 genera | Epipelagic in marine ecosystem |
Xiphiidae
|
Billfishes
| 5 species in 4 genera | Epipelagic and mesopelagic, highly migratory |
Centrolophidae | Medusafishes | 2–3 in 1–2 genera | Epipelagic to demersal over continental shelves, some are pelagic on the high seas |
Nomeidae | Diftfishes | 7 species in 3 genera | In mid-water or demersal over continental shelves and oceanic waters |
Ariommatidae | Not Available | 3 species in 1 genus | In deepwater near continental and insular shelves |
Tetragonuridae | Not Available | 1 species | In oceanic waters at epipelagic and mesopelagic depths |
Stromateidae | Butterfishes | 2 species in 1 genus | Along continental margins |
Bothidae | Lefteye founders | 7 species in 5 genera | Benthic and associated with soft bottoms on continental shelves |
Paralichthyidae | Not available | 22–23 species in 8 genera | Benthic and associated with soft bottoms on continental shelves |
Achiridae | Not available | 5–6 species in 3 genera | Benthic on inner continental and insular shelves |
Cynoglossidae | Tonguefishes | 11–12 species in 1 genus | Benthic on continental shelves and the upper slopes |
Triacanthodidae | Spikefishes | 3 species in 2 genera | Near the bottom between 46 and 900 m |
Balistidae | Triggerfishes | 6 species in 4 genera | Benthic |
Monacanthidae | Filefishes | 10 species in 4 genera | Coral or rocky reefs and sea-grass beds |
Ostraciidae | Cowfishes | 5 species in 3 genera | Benthic and associated with coral and rocky reefs, and sea-grass beds |
Tetraodontidae | Puffers | 9 species 3 genera | In shallow depths |
Diodontidae | Porcupinefishes | 6–7 species in 2 genera | Benthic and associated with floating seaweed |
Molidae | Ocean sunfishes | 3 species in 3 genera | Pelagic |
Clupeidae
|
Herrings
| At least 12 species in 8 genera | Pelagic and schooling |
Engraulidae | Anchovies | At least 5 species in 2 genera | Pelagic |
Synodontidae | Lizardfishes | At least 7 species 3 genera | Benthic |
Mugilidae
|
Mullets
| At least 4 species in 2 genera | Estuaries and freshwater |
Batrachoididae | Toadfishes | At least 3 species in 2 genera | Benthic |
Aentennariidae | Frogfishes | At least 4 species in 2 genera | In coral or sponge-encrusted substrates, middle shelf |
Ogcocephalidae | Batfishes | At least 4 species in 3 genera | In the shelf and deeper areas, near bottom |
Bregmacerotidae | Codlets | 1 species | On the middle shelf |
Steindachneridae | Not available | 1 species | In deeper waters, muddy bottom |
Phycidae | Hakes | At least 3 species in 1 genus | Offshore in deep and cold waters |
Ophidiidae | Cusk-eels | At least 7 species in 4 genera | Deep-water fishing crevices or in burrows in the mud |
Exocoetidae | Flyingfishes | 12 species in 9 genera | Frequently jump from the water and skip over the surface |
Belonidae | Needlefishes | 4 species in 4 genera | In inshore Gulf and bays |
Fundulidae | Killifishes | 6 species in 3 genera | In inshore, coastal, estuaries, and bays |
Altherinidae | Silversides | 4 species in 2 genera | In estuarine and coastal areas |
Holocentridae | Squirrelfishes | 7 species in 3 genera | On offshore reefs |
Syngnathidae | Pipefishes | 10 species in 4 genera | In vegetated areas |
Muraenidae | Moray eels | 5 species in 1 genus | In continental shelves, associated with reefs |
Fisheries Values | Family | Species Selected |
---|---|---|
Finfish families with high to medium commercial values |
Serranidae (Seabasses)
| Red grouper (Epinephelus morio) |
Carangidae (Jacks)
| Greater amberjack (Seriola dumerili) | |
Lutjanidae (Snappers)
| Red snapper (Lutjanus campechanus) | |
Scombridae (Mackerels and tunas)
| Bluefin tuna (Thunnus thynnus), king mackerel (Scomberomorus cavalla) | |
Clupeidae (Herrings)
| Gulf menhaden (Brevoortia patronus) | |
Mugilidae (Mullets)
| Striped mullet (Mugil cephalus) | |
Moronidae (Temperate basses) | No species selected | |
Malacanthidae (Tilefishes)
| Tilefish (Lopholatilus chamaeleonticeps) | |
Coryphaenidae (Dolphinfishes)
| Dolphinfish (Coryphaena hippurus) | |
Sparidae (Porgies) | No species selected | |
Stromateidae (Butterfishes) | No species selected | |
Balistidae (Triggerfishes) | No species selected | |
Finfish families with high to medium recreational values |
Serranidae (Seabasses)
| Red grouper (Epinephelus morio) |
Priacanthidae (Bigeyes) | No species selected | |
Pomatomidae (Bluefishes) | No species selected | |
Coryphaenidae (Dolphinfishes)
| Dolphinfish (Coryphaena hippurus) | |
Carangidae (Jacks)
| Greater amberjack (Seriola dumerili) | |
Lutjanidae (Snappers)
| Red snapper (Lutjanus campechanus) | |
Sciaenidae (Drums)
| Red drum (Sciaenops ocellatus) | |
Scombridae (Mackerels and tunas)
| Bluefin tuna (Thunnus thynnus), king mackerel (Scomberomorus cavalla) | |
Xiphiidae (Billfishes)
| Atlantic sailfish (Istiophorus albicans), Atlantic blue marlin (Makaira nigricans), Atlantic swordfish (Xiphias gladius) | |
Sphyraenidae (Barracudas) | No species selected | |
Paralichthyidae | No species selected | |
Balistidae (Triggerfishes) | No species selected | |
Mugilidae (Mullets)
| Striped mullet (Mugil cephalus) |
Habitat | Finfish Species |
---|---|
Benthic | Rock hind grouper (Epinephelus adscensionis), Yellowfin grouper (Mycteroperca venenosa), Scamp grouper (Mycteroperca phenax), Red hind (Epinephelus guttatus), Atlantic goliath grouper (Epinephelus itajara), Nassau grouper (Epinephelus striatus), Red grouper (
Epinephelus morio
), Gag grouper (Mycteroperca microlepis), Yellowedge grouper (Hyporthodus flavolimbatus), Mutton snapper (Lutjanus analis), Blackfin snapper (Lutjanus buccanella), Red snapper (
Lutjanus campechanus
), Lane snapper (Lutjanus synagris), Silk snapper (Lutjanus vivanus), Yellowtail snapper (Ocyurus chrysurus), Vermillion snapper (Rhomboplites aurorubens), Tilefish (
Lopholatilus chamaeleonticeps
), Blueline snapper (Lutjanus kasmira), Golden snapper (Lutjanus inermis), Red drum (
Sciaenops ocellatus
), Black drum (Pogonias cromis), Bluefish (Pomatomus saltatrix), Common snook (Centropomus undecimalis), Crevalle jack (Caranx hippos), Spotted seatrout (Cynoscion nebulosus), and Striped mullet (
Mugil cephalus
)
|
Pelagic and highly migratory | Skipjack (Katsuwonus pelamis), Albacore (Thunnus alalunga), Bigeye (Thunnus obesus), Atlantic bluefin tuna (
Thunnus thynnus
), Yellowfin tuna (Thunnus albacores), Small tunas, Atlantic blue marlin (
Makaira nigricans
), White marlin (Tetrapturus albidus), Atlantic sailfish (
Istiophorus albicans
), and Atlantic swordfish (
Xiphias gladius
)
|
Pelagic |
Dolphinfish (
Coryphaena hippurus
), Spanish mackerel (Scomberomorus maculatus), Cobia (Rachycentron canadum), Atlantic thread herring (Opisthonema oglinum), King mackerel (
Scomberomorus cavalla
), Spanish sardine (Sardinella aurita), Menhaden (
Brevoortia spp.), and Greater amberjack (
Seriola dumerili
)
|
9.2 Overview of the Gulf of Mexico Ecosystem for Finfish
9.2.1 Key Environmental Variables Influencing Spatiotemporal Dynamics of Fish Populations
9.2.2 The Fish Community in the Gulf of Mexico
Distribution Region | Percent of Total Species (%) | Species |
---|---|---|
Entire Gulf of Mexico | 48.8 | Wide-ranging epipelagic, mesopelagic, and benthic fish species |
Eastern subregion of Gulf of Mexico | 14.6 | Mainly fish species in the families: Ophichthidae, Alepocephalodae, Melanostomiidae, Notosudidae, Paralepididae, Syngnathidae, Opistognathidae, Apogonidae, Chaenopsidae, and Gobiidae |
Northwestern subregion of Gulf of Mexico | 3.6 | Mainly fish species endemic to the Gulf of Mexico or found in the southeastern United States and some deep-sea fish species, such as narrownose chimaera, bigeye sand tiger, fangtooth snake-eel, snipe-eel, and blue slickhead |
Southern subregion of Gulf of Mexico | 6.4 | Fish species that also occur in the Caribbean Sea |
Northern subregion of Gulf of Mexico (including both eastern and northwestern subregions) | 17.5 | Most fish species also occur along the eastern seaboard of the United States |
Western subregion of Gulf of Mexico (including both northwestern and southern subregions) | 3 | Some fish species have disjunct populations along the eastern seaboard of the United States |
Both eastern and southern subregions of Gulf of Mexico | 5.3 | Fish species tend to be associated with reefs and can often be found in the Florida Keys, the Bahamas, and the Greater and Lesser Antilles |
Habitat | Trophic Levela
| Size (cm) | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Mean | Coefficient of Variation | # of Species | % of Species | Mean | Coefficient of Variation | |
Reef-associated | 3.470 | 0.181 | 384 | 34.5 | 53.73 | 1.27 |
Bathydemersal | 3.671 | 0.097 | 131 | 11.8 | 50.91 | 1.16 |
Bathypelagic | 3.695 | 0.123 | 158 | 14.2 | 32.44 | 1.25 |
Benthopelagic | 3.745 | 0.142 | 66 | 5.9 | 90.92 | 1.45 |
Demersal | 3.568 | 0.126 | 260 | 23.4 | 56.26 | 1.62 |
Pelagic-neritic | 3.389 | 0.167 | 46 | 4.1 | 46.10 | 0.97 |
Pelagic-oceanic | 3.970 | 0.121 | 67 | 6.0 | 216.21 | 1.53 |
9.3 Population Dynamics of Key Finfish Species of Ecological, Commercial, and Recreational Importance
9.3.1 Snappers (Family Lutjanidae)
Parameter | Value | Reference |
---|---|---|
von Bertalanffy growth model parametersa
|
L
∞ = 876.9 mm (34.5 inches [in]) fork length (FL)2
| SEDAR 7 (2005) |
L
∞ = 876.9 mm (34.5 in.) FL | Nelson and Manooch (1982) | |
K = 0.22 per year | SEDAR 7 (2005) | |
K = 0.17 per year | Nelson and Manooch (1982) | |
t
0 = 0.37 years | SEDAR 7 (2005) | |
t
0 = −0.1 years | Nelson and Manooch (1982) | |
Age at first maturity | 1 year | Cook et al. (2009) |
2 years | ||
Length at first maturity | Smallest females showing evidence of recent spawning: 196 mm (7.7 in.) and 216 mm (8.5 in.) FL | Cook et al. (2009) |
296 mm (11.6 in.) FL | Fitzhugh et al. (2004) | |
285 mm (11.2 in.) FL | Woods et al. (2007) | |
Spawning season | April through September, peaks June through August | |
Spawning location | Spawn offshore on the shelf and upper continental slope over sand and mud bottom areas away from reefs, highest abundances occur in the Northern Gulf of Mexico off central and western Louisiana | |
Common prey of juveniles | Diet comprised primarily of fish and invertebrates from reef and soft bottom habitat. Fishes include blennies, Halichoeres sp., Serranidae (Serranus sp., Centropristes sp.). Invertebrates include shrimps (mantis shrimp, rock shrimp, Alpheidae, Hippolytidae), squid, octopuses, and crabs | |
Common prey of adults | Soft bottom prey are a major component of the diet, but reef associated fishes are taken when abundant. Fishes include gulf pipefish, shoal flounder, puffer family, striped mullet, sea robin family, rough scad, butterfish family, sand perch, and clupeids. Invertebrates include mantis shrimp, crabs, gastropods, and zooplankton | |
Common prey of large adults | For large adults, feeding is independent of reef habitat and includes a wide variety of prey from reef, soft bottom, pelagic, and Sargassum habitats | Gallaway (1981) |
Common predators | Data not available |
Parameter | Value | Reference |
---|---|---|
Habitat preferences and temporal/spatial distribution of juveniles | Around age 6 months, juveniles recruit to structured habitat and reefs with medium relief, structures about 1 m3 (35.3 ft3) in size; salinity approximately 35 ppt; temperature from 24 to 26 °C; dissolved oxygen at least 5 mg/L; depth from 18 to 64 m (59–210 ft); highest distribution of juveniles are found from Alabama to southern Texas | |
Habitat preferences and temporal/spatial distribution of adults | Around age of 1.5 years, adults start recruiting to large reefs, natural rock outcroppings, offshore petroleum platforms, wrecks, and large artificial reefs across the continental shelf to the shelf edge | |
Habitat preferences and temporal/spatial distribution of spawning adults | Older fish, age 8+ years, reach sizes that render them largely invulnerable to predation, and spend a larger portion of their time over soft bottoms; highest abundances occur in the northern and western Gulf over mud bottoms with depressions or lumps; depth from 55 to 92 m (180–302 ft) | |
Designated Essential Fish Habitat for juveniles and adults | All estuaries in the U.S. Gulf of Mexico; the U.S./Mexico border to the boundary between the areas covered by the GMFMC and the SAFMC from estuarine waters out to depths of 100 fathoms | GMFMC (2005) |
Parameter | Value | References |
---|---|---|
General geographic distribution | Gulf of Mexico, Caribbean Sea, and U.S. Atlantic coast to northern South America. Greatest abundance occurs in the northern Gulf off southwestern Louisiana and Alabama, as well as on the Campeche Banks off of Mexico | |
Commercial importance | High, commercial landings highest in the western Gulf of Mexico | SEDAR 7 (2005) |
Recreational importance | High, recreational landings highest in the western Gulf of Mexico | SEDAR 7 (2005) |
Management agency | NMFS, GMFMC | SEDAR 31 (2009) |
Management boundary | Mexico-Texas boarder to west of the Florida Keys (GMFMC boundaries) | SEDAR 31 (2009) |
Stock structure within the Gulf of Mexico | Managed as one stock, but assessed as two subunits (east/west of the Mississippi River) | SEDAR 31 (2009) |
Status (overfished/overfishing) | Overfished 2001–2012; overfishing 2001–2011 | NMFS (2012a) |
9.3.1.1 Key Life-History Processes and Ecology
9.3.1.2 Predators and Prey
9.3.1.3 Key Habitat Needs and Distribution
9.3.1.4 Fisheries
9.3.2 Menhaden: Gulf Menhaden (Brevoortia patronus), Finescale Menhaden (Brevoortia gunteri), and Yellowfin Menhaden (Brevoortia smithi)
Parameter | Value | Reference |
---|---|---|
von Bertalanffy growth model parameters (see Table 9.6 for explanation) |
L
∞ = 225.9 mm (8.9 in.) FL | Vaughan et al. (2000) |
L
∞ = 212.2 mm (8.3 in.) FL | SEDAR 27 (2011) | |
K = 0.56 per year | Vaughan et al. (2000) | |
K = 0.69 per year | SEDAR 27 (2011) | |
t
0 = −0.43 years | Vaughan et al. (2000) | |
t
0 = −0.31 years | SEDAR 27 (2011) | |
Age at first maturity | 2 years | |
Length at first maturity | 183.1 mm (7.2 in.) FL | |
Spawning season | October through March, peaks December through February | |
Spawning location | High salinity, offshore, open Gulf waters; highest abundances occur from Texas to Alabama, concentrated near the Mississippi Delta | Lewis and Roithmayer (1981) |
Common prey of juveniles and adults | Zooplankton, phytoplankton, and detritus | |
Common predators | Brown pelicans, osprey, common loons, mackerel, bluefish, blue runner, ladyfish, sharks, white and spotted seatrout, longnose and alligator gars, and red drum |
Parameter | Value | Reference |
---|---|---|
Habitat preferences and temporal/spatial distribution of juveniles | Early juveniles settle in shallow (0–2 m or 0–6.6 ft deep), quiet, low salinity areas nearshore during late winter to spring; estuarine marsh edge habitat (also coastal rivers, streams, bays, bayous, and other quiet, low salinity, nearshore habitat) provides adequate forage and protection from predators; salinity from 0 to 15 ppt; temperature from 5 to 35 °C; bottom depth ≤2 m (≤6.6 ft); juveniles migrate offshore during winter and move back to coastal waters the following spring as age-1 adults | |
Habitat preferences and temporal/spatial distribution of adults | Non-gravid, developing adults associated with mid-range salinities of estuary; salinity from 5 to 25 ppt; temperature from 5 to 35 °C; maturing juveniles and adults are typically found in open bay and Gulf waters with non-vegetated bottoms and emigrate from estuarine to open Gulf waters from mid-summer through winter; following overwintering or spawning in offshore waters, all surviving age classes migrate back to estuaries in March and April | |
Habitat preferences and temporal/spatial distribution of spawning adults | Gravid adults generally associated with higher-salinity, open bay and open Gulf waters; spawning typically takes place over the continental shelf during winter; salinity from 15 to 36 ppt; temperature from 14 to 25 °C; depth from 8 to 70 m (26–230 ft) | |
Designated essential fish habitat for juveniles and adults | None designated because not federally managed |
Parameter | Value | Reference |
---|---|---|
General geographic distribution | Coastal Gulf of Mexico with highest abundances occurring from Texas to Alabama, concentrated near the Mississippi Delta; Gulf menhaden: from Yucatán Peninsula in Mexico, across the western and northern Gulf to Tampa Bay, Florida; nearshore marine and estuarine waters from Cape Sable, Florida to Veracruz, Mexico, with centers of abundance off Louisiana and Mississippi; finescale menhaden: from Mississippi Sound southwestward to the Gulf of Campeche in Mexico; yellowfin menhaden: from Chandeleur Sound, Louisiana southward to the Caloosahatchee River, Florida (presumably around the Florida peninsula) to Cape Lookout, North Carolina | |
Commercial importance | High, Gulf menhaden support second largest single fishery in the United States by weight | Lassuy (1983) |
Recreational importance | Low, important as a bait fish | Addis et al. (2011) |
Management agency | GSMFC, respective Gulf state marine agencies | SEDAR 27 (2011) |
Management boundary | The menhaden fishery generally operates in state waters; the respective state marine agencies are responsible for regulating and monitoring the gulf menhaden fishing in their waters. The Gulf states cooperate with each other through the GSMFC to enact multi-state cooperative management of gulf menhaden, without relinquishing their individual state authorities. | |
Stock structure within the Gulf of Mexico | Gulf menhaden comprise >99 % of the annual catch from the menhaden fishery; the management unit is defined as the total population of Gulf menhaden in the U.S. Gulf of Mexico | |
Status (overfished/overfishing) | Through 2004: not overfished, no overfishing occurring; successfully managed under a regional Fisheries Management Plan since 1978; as of 2011, the stock is not overfished, and no overfishing is occurring |
9.3.2.1 Key Life-History Processes and Ecology
9.3.2.2 Predators and Prey
9.3.2.3 Key Habitat Needs and Distribution
9.3.2.4 Fisheries
9.3.3 Groupers (Family Serranidae, Subfamily Epinephelinae)
Parameter | Value | Reference |
---|---|---|
von Bertalanffy growth model parameters—Gulf of Mexico (see Table 9.6 for explanation) |
L
∞ = 808 mm (31.8 in.) TL | Goodyear (1995) |
L
∞ = 854 mm (33.6 in.) TL | ||
L
∞ (West Florida) = 792 mm (31.2 in.) TL | ||
L
∞ (Northern West Florida) = 800.1 mm (31.5 in.) TL | Lombardi-Carlson et al. (2008) | |
L
∞ (Southern West Florida) = 863.1 mm (33.9 in.) TL | Lombardi-Carlson et al. (2008) | |
K = 0.21 per year | Goodyear (1995) | |
K = 0.16 per year | ||
K (West Florida) = 0.18 per year | ||
K (Northern West Florida) = 0.23 per year | Lombardi-Carlson et al. (2008) | |
K (Southern West Florida) = 0.15 per year | Lombardi-Carlson et al. (2008) | |
t
0 = −0.3 years | Goodyear (1995) | |
t
0 = 0.19 years | ||
t
0 (West Florida) = −0.45 years | ||
t
0 (Northern West Florida) = 1.12 years | Lombardi-Carlson et al. (2008) | |
t
0 (Southern West Florida) = 0.05 years | Lombardi-Carlson et al. (2008) | |
Age at female maturity (50 %) | 4–6 years | |
2.4 years | Burgos (2001) | |
≥2 years | NMFS (2002a) | |
2 years (definitely mature model) | Fitzhugh et al. (2006) | |
3.5 years (effectively mature model) | Fitzhugh et al. (2006) | |
3 years | ||
Length at female maturity (50 %) | 450 mm (17.7 in.) SL | Moe (1969) |
485 mm (19.1 in.) FL | Moe (1969) | |
509 mm (20 in.) FL | Brule et al. (1999) | |
487 mm (19.2 in.) TL | Burgos (2001) | |
280 mm (11 in.) TL (definitely mature model) | Fitzhugh et al. (2006) | |
380 mm (14.9 in.) TL (effectively mature model) | Fitzhugh et al. (2006) | |
Age at transition from female to mature male (50 %) | 5–10 years | |
7–14 years | Brule et al. (1999) | |
7.2 years | Burgos (2001) | |
16 years | NMFS (2002a) | |
13 years | Collins et al. (2002) | |
10.5 years | Fitzhugh et al. (2006) | |
11 years | ||
Length at transition from female to mature male (50 %) | 275–500 mm (10.8–19.7 in.) SL | |
597 mm (23.5 in.) FL | Brule et al. (1999) | |
≥584 mm (≥22.9 in.) | Brule et al. (1999) | |
690 mm (27.2 in.) TL | Burgos (2001) | |
800–900 mm (31.5–35.4 in.) TL | Collins et al. (2002) | |
765 mm (30.1 in.) TL | Fitzhugh et al. (2006) | |
Spawning season | January through June, peaks March through May | |
Spawning location | Offshore waters, do not aggregate to spawn | |
Common prey of juveniles and adults | Snappers, sea breams, porgies, and many small fish species; portunid and calappid crabs, octopuses, squids, stomatopods and other shrimps, panulirid and scyllarid lobsters, and amphipods | |
Common predators | Larger groupers and piscivorous fishes, sandbar shark, and great hammerhead shark |
Parameter | Value | Reference |
---|---|---|
Habitat preferences and temporal/spatial distribution of juveniles | Juveniles <5 years of age inhabit shallow, nearshore reefs and seagrass beds; depths of 3–18 m (9.8–59 ft) | |
Habitat preferences and temporal/spatial distribution of adults | Age 4–6 years, coinciding with sexual maturity, adults leave nearshore reefs and move offshore; mainly inhabit rocky bottoms at depths of 36–122 m (118–400 ft); frequently occupy crevices, ledges, and caverns in limestone reefs; depths of 36–189 m (118–620 ft); temperatures from 15 to 30 °C | |
Habitat preferences and temporal/spatial distribution of spawning adults | Offshore waters; do not aggregate to spawn | |
Designated Essential Fish Habitat for juveniles and adults | All Gulf of Mexico estuaries; the U.S./Mexico border to the boundary between the areas covered by the GMFMC and the SAFMC from estuarine waters out to depths of 100 fathoms | GMFMC (2005) |
Parameter | Value | Reference |
---|---|---|
General geographic distribution | Massachusetts to Brazil; especially abundant in the Gulf of Mexico and on the Yucatán Peninsula shelf; center of abundance is in the Florida shelf and the eastern Gulf of Mexico | |
Commercial importance | High | |
Recreational importance | High | |
Management agency | GMFMC | SEDAR 12 (2006) |
Management boundary | All U.S. federal waters in the Gulf of Mexico within the GMFMC boundaries; U.S./Mexico border through the northern Gulf of Mexico waters to the Florida Keys; the Gulf of Mexico and South Atlantic Stocks are divided along U.S. Highway 1 in the Florida Keys | |
Stock structure within the Gulf of Mexico | Managed as a single stock in Gulf of Mexico | SEDAR 12 (2006c) |
Status (overfished/overfishing) | Overfishing 2000–2004, overfishing not occurring 2005–2008, not overfished 2005–2008; but overfishing might occur and local populations might be overfished in some areas in northeastern and southern Gulf of Mexico |
9.3.3.1 Key Life-History Processes and Ecology
9.3.3.2 Predators and Prey
9.3.3.3 Key Habitat Needs and Distribution
9.3.3.4 Fisheries
9.3.4 Atlantic Bluefin Tuna (Thunnus thynnus)
Parameter | Value | Reference |
---|---|---|
von Bertalanffy growth model parameters (see Table 9.6 for explanation) |
L
∞ = 382 cm (150.4 in.) | |
L
∞ = 315 cm (124 in.) | ICCAT (2012a) | |
K = 0.08 per year | ||
K = 0.09 per year | ICCAT (2012a) | |
t
0 = −0.71 years | ||
t
0 = −1.13 years | ICCAT (2012a) | |
Age at maturity | 9 years | |
10 years | Magnuson et al. (1994) | |
11 years | Block et al. (2005) | |
Length at maturity | 200 cm (78.7 in.) curved fork length (CFL)a
| Magnuson et al. (1994) |
241 ± 28 cm (94.9 ± 11 in.) CFL | Block et al. (2005) | |
Spawning season | April to mid-June | |
Spawning location | Northern Gulf of Mexico in waters along the continental shelf break and slope | |
Common prey of juveniles | Small fishes, fish larvae, and zooplankton | |
Common prey of adults | Atlantic herring, Atlantic mackerel, bluefish, sand lances, silver hake, spiny dogfish, demersal fishes, krill, squids, and crustaceans | |
Common predators of juveniles | Larger fishes and gelatinous zooplankton | McGowan and Richards (1989) |
Common predators of adults | Toothed whales, swordfish, and sharks |
Parameter | Value | Reference |
---|---|---|
Habitat preferences and spatial/temporal distribution of juveniles | In June, juveniles leaving spawning grounds in the Gulf of Mexico begin migration to nursery areas located between Cape Hatteras, North Carolina and Cape Cod, Massachusetts in waters over the continental shelf for the summer and farther offshore in the winter | |
Habitat preferences and spatial/temporal distribution of adults | Epipelagic and oceanic, coming inshore seasonally to feed; feeding typically at depths <200 m (<656 ft) and >12 °C in waters above the thermocline; June through March: adults inhabit foraging grounds along the east coast of North America in waters over the continental shelf and in the central North Atlantic; April through June: non-mature adults inhabit waters over the continental shelf along the southeastern U.S. coast | |
Habitat preferences and spatial/temporal distribution of spawning adults | April–June: migrate to spawning grounds in the northern Gulf of Mexico where spawning occurs along the continental slope in waters between the 200- and 3,000-m (656 and 9,843-ft) contours; prefer waters with moderate eddy kinetic energy, low surface chlorophyll concentrations, moderate wind speeds, and temperatures from 22.6 to 27.5°C; June–March: migrate through the Straits of Florida to foraging grounds off the Northeast U.S. and Canadian coasts; foraging grounds include waters overlying North American continental shelf, slope, Gulf Stream waters, the South and Mid-Atlantic Bight, the Gulf of Maine, and the Nova Scotia Shelf; larger individuals move into higher latitudes than smaller fish; occasionally forage in the central North Atlantic crossing the 45°W meridian, moving into the Eastern Atlantic and back before returning to spawning areas in the Gulf of Mexico | |
Designated essential fish habitat for juveniles | Waters off North Carolina, south of Cape Hatteras, to Cape Cod | NMFS (2009b) |
Designated essential fish habitat for adults | Pelagic waters of the central Gulf of Mexico and the mid-east coast of Florida; North Carolina from Cape Lookout to Cape Hatteras; New England from Connecticut to the mid-coast of Maine | NMFS (2009b) |
Designated essential fish habitat for spawning adults | In the Gulf of Mexico, from the 100 m (328 ft) depth contour to the Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ), continuing to the mid-east coast of Florida | NMFS (2009b) |
Parameter | Value | Reference |
---|---|---|
General geographic distribution | From warm tropical waters in the Gulf of Mexico and the Caribbean to subpolar waters of the North Atlantic Ocean; Atlantic waters west of the 45°W meridian, from 55°N to 0° latitude | |
Commercial importance | High | |
Recreational importance | High | |
Management agency | NMFS, Highly Migratory Species Management Division (HMSMD); ICCAT | NMFS (2009b) |
Management boundary | North Atlantic Ocean west of the 45°W meridian, including the Gulf of Mexico and Caribbean | |
Stock structure | Managed as East and West Atlantic Stocks; separated by the 45°W meridian | |
Status (overfished/overfishing) | Overfished from at least 2000–2012; overfishing from at least 2000–2012 (the conclusion could differ if a different productivity regime was assumed) |
9.3.4.1 Key Life-History Processes and Ecology
9.3.4.2 Predators and Prey
9.3.4.3 Key Habitat Needs and Distribution
9.3.4.4 Fisheries
9.3.5 Atlantic Blue Marlin (Makaira nigricans)
9.3.5.1 Key Life-History Processes and Ecology
Parameter | Value | Reference |
---|---|---|
von Bertalanffy growth model parameters | Not available | |
Age at maturity | 2–4 years | ICCAT (1997) |
Length at maturity | Not available | |
Weight at maturity | Males: 35–44 kg (77.2–97 lb) Females: 47–60 kg (103.6–132.3 lb) | NMFS (2009b) |
Spawning season | July through October in the North Atlantic; February and March in the South Atlantic; May and June are peak spawning months for fish off Florida and the Bahamas | |
Spawning location | Pelagic waters in the North and South Atlantic from a northern extreme of 32°N off of Bermuda to a southern extreme of 25°S off the Brazilian coast; corresponds to sea surface temperatures around 28 °C | |
Common prey of juveniles and adults | Feed primarily on tuna-like fishes, squid, and on a wide size range of other organisms; dolphinfish, mackerels, tunas, and bonitos are important prey in the Gulf of Mexico | |
Common predators of juvenile and adults | Very little is known | ICCAT (2012b) |
Parameter | Value | Reference |
---|---|---|
Habitat preferences and temporal/spatial distribution of juveniles and adults | Epipelagic and oceanic, generally found in blue waters with a temperature range of 22–31 °C; January to April in the Southwest Atlantic from 5°S to 30°S, and from June to October in the Northwest Atlantic between 10°N and 35°N; May, November, and December are transitional months; seasonal movements related to changes in sea surface temperatures; in the northern Gulf of Mexico they are associated with low productivity blue waters and the Loop Current | |
Habitat preferences and temporal/spatial distribution of spawning adults | Pelagic waters in the North and South Atlantic from a northern extreme of 32°N off Bermuda to a southern extreme of 25°S off the Brazilian coast; sea surface temperatures around 28 °C; May and June are peak spawning months for fish off Florida and the Bahamas | |
Designated essential fish habitat for juveniles | In the central Gulf of Mexico, from southern Texas to the Florida Panhandle; through the Florida Keys to southern Cape Cod; Puerto Rico and the Virgin Islands | NMFS (2009b) |
Designated essential fish habitat for adults | In the central Gulf of Mexico, from southern Texas to the Florida Panhandle; through the Florida Keys to southern Cape Cod; Puerto Rico and the Virgin Islands | NMFS (2009b) |
Designated essential fish habitat for spawning adults | Mid-east coast of Florida through the Florida Keys; waters off the northwest coast of Puerto Rico. | NMFS (2009b) |
Parameter | Value | Reference |
---|---|---|
General geographic distribution | Tropical and subtropical waters of the Atlantic Ocean; ranging from 45°N to 35°S | NMFS (2009b) |
Commercial importance | No commercial U.S. fishery | NMFS (2009b) |
Recreational importance | High | NMFS (2009b) |
Management agency | NMFS, HMSMD; ICCAT | NMFS (2009b) |
Management boundary | Atlantic Ocean | |
Stock structure | Single Atlantic-wide stock | ICCAT (2001) |
Status (overfished/overfishing) | Overfished from at least 2000–2011; overfishing from at least 2000–2011 |
9.3.5.2 Predators and Prey
9.3.5.3 Key Habitat Needs and Distribution
9.3.5.4 Fisheries
9.3.6 Atlantic Swordfish (Xiphias gladius)
Parameter | Value | Reference |
---|---|---|
General geographic distribution | Circumglobal species; range includes tropical, temperate, and some cold water regions from 50°N to 45°S in the western Atlantic, and 60°N to 50°S in the eastern Atlantic | |
Commercial importance | High | |
Recreational importance | Medium | |
Management agency | NMFS, Highly Migratory Species Management Division; International Commission for the Conservation of Atlantic Tunas | NMFS (2009b) |
Management boundary | North and South Atlantic stocks are separated at 5°N | NMFS (2009b) |
Stock structure within the Gulf of Mexico | Part of the North Atlantic stock | NMFS (2009b) |
Status (overfished/overfishing) | Overfished prior to 2000–2002; overfishing prior to 2000–2002 |
9.3.6.1 Key Life-History Processes and Ecology
Parameter | Value | Reference |
---|---|---|
von Bertalanffy growth model parameters | Not available | |
Age at first maturity | Females: 4–5 years Males: 1.4 years | |
Weight at first maturity | Females: 74 kg (163.1 lb) Males: 21 kg (46.3 lb) | |
Length at first maturity (50 %) | Females: 179–182 cm (70.5–71.7 in.) lower jaw fork length (LJFL)a
Males: 112–129 cm (44.1–50.8 in.) LJFL | |
Spawning season | December through June in the western North Atlantic and northern Caribbean; April through August off of the southeast coast of the United States | Arocha (1997) |
Spawning location | Between 15°N and 35°N, west of 40°W meridian; major spawning grounds in the Straits of Yucatán, the Straits of Florida, and in the vicinity of the northernmost arc of the Gulf Loop Current | |
Common prey of juveniles | Squids, fishes, and pelagic crustaceans | Palko et al. (1981) |
Common prey of adults | Small tunas, dolphinfishes, lancetfish, snake mackerels, flyingfishes, barracudas, mackerels, herrings, anchovies, sardines, sauries, needlefishes, hakes, pomfrets, cutlass fish, lightfishes, hatchet fishes, redfish, lanternfishes, and cuttlefishes, octopus, and squids, such as Ommastrephes, Loligo, and Illex
| |
Common predators of juveniles | Sharks, tunas, billfishes, and adult swordfish | Palko et al. (1981) |
Common predators of adults | Sperm whales, killer whales, and large sharks, such as mako sharks | NMFS (2009b) |
Parameter | Value | Reference |
---|---|---|
Habitat preferences and temporal/spatial distribution of juveniles | The Gulf of Mexico, the Atlantic coast of Florida, and waters near the Charleston Bump | |
Habitat preferences and temporal/spatial distribution of adults | Epipelagic to meso-pelagic; temperature range from 18 to 22 °C; concentrate along boundary currents of the Gulf Stream and the Gulf of Mexico Loop Current; some move northeastward along U.S. continental shelf in summer and return southwestward in autumn; another group moves from deepwater westward toward the continental shelf in summer and back into deepwater in autumn | |
Habitat preferences and temporal/spatial distribution of spawning adults | Between 15°N and 35°N, west of 40°W meridian; most spawning takes place in waters with surface temperatures above 20–22 °C; major spawning grounds thought to occur in the Straits of Yucatán, the Straits of Florida, and in the vicinity of the northernmost arc of the Gulf Loop Current; move to warmer waters for spawning and cooler waters for feeding; south of the Sargasso Sea and in the upper Caribbean, spawning occurs from December through March; off the U.S. southeast coast, spawning occurs from April through August | |
Designated essential fish habitat for juveniles | In the central Gulf of Mexico, from southern Texas through the Florida Keys; Atlantic east coast from South Florida to Cape Cod; Puerto Rico and the Virgin Islands | NMFS (2009b) |
Designated essential fish habitat for adults | In the central Gulf of Mexico, from southern Texas to the Florida Panhandle and western Florida Keys; Atlantic east coast from southern Florida to the mid-east coast of Florida and Georgia to Cape Cod; Puerto Rico and the Virgin Islands | NMFS (2009b) |
Designated essential fish habitat for spawning adults | From off Cape Hatteras, North Carolina extending south around Peninsular Florida through the Gulf of Mexico to the U.S./Mexico border from the 200 m (656 ft) isobath to the EEZ boundary; associated with the Loop Current boundaries in the Gulf and the western edge of the Gulf Stream in the Atlantic; also, all U.S. waters of the Caribbean from the 200 m (656 ft) isobath to the EEZ boundary | NMFS (2009b) |
9.3.6.2 Predators and Prey
9.3.6.3 Key Habitat Needs and Distribution
9.3.6.4 Fisheries
9.3.7 Atlantic Sailfish (Istiophorus albicans)
Parameter | Value | Reference |
---|---|---|
General geographic distribution | Circumtropical distribution; range from 40°N to 40°S in the western Atlantic and 50°N to 32°S in the eastern Atlantic | NMFS (2009b) |
Commercial importance | Low, commercial landings prohibited in the United States | ICCAT (2010) |
Recreational importance | High | |
Management agency | NMFS, Highly Migratory Species Management Division; ICCAT | NMFS (2009b) |
Management boundary | 40°W north of 5°N; 30°W from 5°N to the equator; 20°W south of the equator | |
Stock structure within the Gulf of Mexico | Part of the Western Atlantic stock | ICCAT (2010) |
Status (overfished/overfishing) | Overfished prior to 2000–2008; overfishing prior to 2000–2011 |
Parameter | Value | Reference |
---|---|---|
von Bertalanffy growth model parameters | Not available | |
Age at first maturity | 3 years | de Sylva and Breder (1997) |
Weight at first maturity | Males: 10 kg (22 lb); females: 13–18 kg (28.7–39.7 lb) | de Sylva and Breder (1997) |
Length at first maturity | Not available | |
Spawning season | Multiple spawners; in the western Atlantic, spawning activity moves northward as summer progresses; in the northern Gulf of Mexico, spawning occurs from May to September; from Cuba to the Carolinas, spawning occurs from April to September | |
Spawning location | Shallow waters around Florida from the Keys to Palm Beach on the east coast; in the northern Gulf of Mexico, including off Texas; offshore from Cuba to the Carolinas | |
Common prey of juveniles and adults | Little tunny, halfbeaks, cutlassfish, rudderfish, jacks, pinfish, bullet tuna, sea robin, Atlantic moonfish, squids, shrimps, and gastropods | |
Common predators of adults | Killer whales, bottlenose dolphin, and sharks | Beardsley et al. 1975
|
Parameter | Value | Reference |
---|---|---|
Habitat preferences and temporal/spatial distribution of juveniles and adults | Mainly oceanic, but migrate into shallow coastal waters; in the southern Gulf of Mexico, usually found above the thermocline at depths of <20 m (<65.6 ft), repeatedly making short duration dives below the thermocline to depths of 50–150 m (164–492 ft); in some areas of their range, the thermocline occurs at depth of 200–250 m (656–820 ft); preferred temperature range of 21–29 °C; Winter: small schools around the Florida Keys and off eastern Florida, in the Caribbean, and in offshore waters throughout the Gulf of Mexico; summer: spread out along the U.S. east coast as far north as Maine, although there is a year-round Florida east coast population; no transatlantic or transequatorial movements have been documented using tag-recapture methods | |
Habitat preferences for spawning adults | Shallow waters, 9–12 m (29.5–39.4 ft) deep; around Florida from the Keys to Palm Beach on the east coast; in the northern Gulf of Mexico, including off Texas; offshore beyond the 100 m (328 ft) isobath from Cuba to the Carolinas; spawning activity moves northward in the western Atlantic as summer progresses | |
Designated essential fish habitat for juveniles | In the central Gulf of Mexico, off southern Texas, Louisiana, and the Florida Panhandle; Atlantic east coast from the Florida Keys to mid-coast of South Carolina; the Outer Banks of North Carolina and Maryland; eastern Puerto Rico and the Virgin Islands | NMFS (2009b) |
Designated essential fish habitat for adults | In the central Gulf of Mexico, off southern Texas, Louisiana, and the Florida Panhandle; Atlantic east coast from the Florida Keys to northern Florida, off of Georgia, and Cape Hatteras; also around the Virgin Islands | NMFS (2009b) |
Designated essential fish habitat for spawning adults | Off the Southeast Florida coast to Key West; associated with waters of the Gulf Stream and Florida Straits from 5 miles offshore out to the EEZ boundary | NMFS (2009b) |
9.3.7.1 Key Life-History Processes and Ecology
9.3.7.2 Predators and Prey
9.3.7.3 Key Habitat Needs and Distribution
9.3.7.4 Fisheries
9.3.8 Red Drum (Sciaenops ocellatus)
Parameter | Value | Reference |
---|---|---|
von Bertalanffy growth model parameters (see Table 9.6 for explanation) |
L
∞ (Texas, age <3.8 years) = 982 mm (38.7 in.) | Porch (2000) |
L
∞ (Texas, age ≥3.8 years) = 982 mm (38.7 in.) | ||
L
∞ (Louisiana/Mississippi/Alabama, age <3.3 years) = 1,017 mm (40 in.) | ||
L
∞ (Louisiana/Mississippi/Alabama, age ≥3.3 years) = 1,017 mm (40 in.) | ||
L
∞ (Florida Gulf coast) = 935 mm (36.8 in.) | Murphy and Taylor (1990) | |
L
∞ (Florida, age <2.8 years) = 1,019 mm (40.1 in.) | Porch (2000) | |
L
∞ (Florida, age ≥2.8 years) = 1,019 mm (40.1 in.) | ||
K (Texas, age <3.8 years) = 0.31 per year | ||
K (Texas, age ≥3.8 years) = 0.15 per year | ||
K (Louisiana/Mississippi/Alabama, age <3.3 years) = 0.41 per year | ||
K (Louisiana/Mississippi/Alabama, age ≥3.3 years) = 0.11 per year | ||
K (Florida Gulf coast) = 0.46 per year | Murphy and Taylor (1990) | |
K (Florida, age <2.8 years) = 0.40 per year | Porch (2000) | |
K (Florida, age ≥2.8 years) = 0.19 per year | ||
t
0 (Texas, age <3.8 years) = −0.18 years | ||
t
0 (Texas, age ≥3.8 years) = −4.78 years | ||
t
0 (Louisiana/Mississippi/Alabama, age <3.3 years) = 0.06 years | ||
t
0 (Louisiana/Mississippi/Alabama, age ≥3.3 years) = −8.39 years | ||
t
0 (Florida Gulf coast) = 0.029 years | Murphy and Taylor (1990) | |
t
0 (Florida, age <2.8 years) = −0.04 years | Porch (2000) | |
t
0 (Florida, age ≥2.8 years) = −3.06 years | ||
Age at first maturity | Male: 1–3 years Female: 3–6 years | |
Length at first maturity | Gulf of Mexico (Sexes combined) = 740–750 mm (29.1–29.5 in.) | NMFS, SERO (1986) |
Male: 411–791 mm (16.2–31.1 in.) TL; 50 % at 552 mm (21.7 in.) | Murphy and Taylor (1990) | |
Female: 629 to 900 mm (24.8 to 35.4 in.) TL; 50 % at 874 mm (34.4 in.) | ||
Spawning season | Late summer and early fall; peak September through October | |
Spawning location | Open Gulf of Mexico waters, inlets, within estuaries, or in nearshore shelf waters | |
Common prey of juveniles | Copepods, mysid shrimp, and amphipods | Peters and McMichael (1987) |
Common prey of adults | Menhadens, anchovies, lizard fish, mullets, pinfish, sea catfish, spot, Atlantic croaker, mollusks, crabs, and shrimps | |
Common predators of juveniles | Amberjack, large piscivorous fishes, sharks, and birds; typically not normal part of diet of any common estuarine predator | |
Common predators of adults | Sharks; not a normal part of the diet of any common estuarine predator |
Parameter | Value | Reference |
---|---|---|
Habitat preferences and spatial/temporal distribution for juveniles | Typically limited to rivers, bays, bayous, canals, tidal creeks, boat basins, and passes within estuaries; also within seagrass beds and over oyster bars, mud flats, and sand bottoms; salinity of 5–35 ppt; temperature from 5 to 35 °C; older juveniles may move into open Gulf of Mexico waters during fall and winter | |
Habitat preferences and spatial/temporal distribution for adults | Along coastal beaches and in nearshore shelf waters; move farther into open Gulf of Mexico waters and spend less time in bays and estuaries as they mature; optimum salinity range of 30–35 ppt; temperatures from 3 to 35 °C; depths from 40 to 70 m (131.2–229.7 ft); in eastern and western Gulf of Mexico, including South Florida and South Texas, typically inhabit bays and near Gulf waters; in northern Gulf of Mexico, from the Florida Panhandle to North Texas, may move farther offshore, especially in the area between Mobile Bay, Alabama and the area east of the Mississippi Delta | |
Habitat preferences and spatial/temporal distribution for spawning adults | Open Gulf of Mexico waters, near passes and inlets, within estuaries, or in nearshore shelf waters; temperatures from 22 to 26 °C; salinity around 30 ppt | |
Designated essential fish habitat | All estuaries in the Gulf of Mexico; Vermilion Bay, Louisiana to the eastern edge of Mobile Bay, Alabama, out to depths of 25 fathoms; Crystal River, Florida to Naples, Florida, between depths of 5 and 10 fathoms; and Cape Sable, Florida, to the boundary between the areas covered by the GMFMC and the SAFMC, between depths of 5 and 10 fathoms (1 ftm = 1.8 m = 6 ft) | GMFMC (2005) |
Parameter | Value | Reference |
---|---|---|
General geographic distribution | In the Gulf of Mexico from northern Mexico along the Gulf coast into extreme Southwest Florida; along the Atlantic coast from Key West, Florida to New Jersey; occasionally as far north as the Gulf of Maine | |
Commercial importance | Low | |
Recreational importance | High | |
Management agency | GMFMC; respective Gulf state marine agencies | NMFS, SERO (1986) |
Management boundary | GMFMC boundaries; respective state marine agencies are responsible for regulating and monitoring the red drum fishing in their waters | |
Stock structure within the Gulf of Mexico | Single Gulf of Mexico stock | |
Status (overfished/overfishing) | Overfished from prior to 2000–2005, overfished condition undefined 2006–2011; overfishing occurring prior to 2000 and from 2001 to 2003 |
9.3.8.1 Key Life-History Processes and Ecology
9.3.8.2 Predators and Prey
9.3.8.3 Key Habitat Needs and Distribution
9.3.8.4 Fisheries
9.3.9 Tilefish (Lopholatilus chamaeleonticeps)
Parameter | Value | Reference |
---|---|---|
General geographic distribution | In the western Atlantic, along the outer continental shelf from Nova Scotia through Key West, Florida; in the Gulf of Mexico, particularly off the mouth of the Mississippi River in De Soto Canyon, Texas, and the Campeche Banks; off of Venezuela to Guyana and Surinam | |
Commercial importance | Medium | |
Recreational importance | Low | |
Management agency | GMFMC | SEDAR 22 (2011) |
Management boundary | The EEZ, from the state boundary line to 200 miles offshore, from the U.S./Mexico border to the boundary between the areas covered by the GMFMC and the SAFMC | |
Stock structure within the Gulf of Mexico | All tilefish combined as one Gulf of Mexico stock; assessed as eastern and western populations | |
Status (overfished/overfishing) | Not overfished and overfishing not occurring in 2010; stock size reduced substantially as a result of heavy fishing since the 1960s |
Parameter | Value | Reference |
---|---|---|
Habitat preferences and spatial/temporal distribution | Inhabit burrows along the continental slope and shelf with distinct sediment, depth, and temperature preferences; burrows excavated from firm mud, silt, sand, and clay sediment along the continental slope; prefer depths from about 120–360 m (393.7–1,181 ft); bottom temperatures from about 9 to 18 °C; tagging results suggest adult movements are minimal; Gulf of Mexico populations are most dense off the mouth of the Mississippi River in Desoto Canyon, Texas, and the Campeche Banks | |
Designated essential fish habitat | All estuaries in the U.S. Gulf of Mexico; the U.S./Mexico border to the boundary between the areas covered by the GMFMC and the SAFMC from estuarine waters out to depths of 100 fathoms | GMFMC (2005) |
9.3.9.1 Key Life-History Processes and Ecology
Parameter | Value | Reference |
---|---|---|
von Bertalanffy growth model parameters (see Table 9.6 for explanation) |
L
∞ (All data combined) = 830 mm (32.7 in.) | |
L
∞ (Males) = 767 mm (30.2 in.) | ||
L
∞ (Females) = 613 mm (24.1 in.) | ||
L
∞ (East Gulf of Mexico Population) = 878 mm (34.6 in.) | ||
L
∞ (West Gulf of Mexico Population) = 773 mm (30.4 in.) | ||
K (All data combined) = 0.13 per year | ||
K (Males) = 0.15 per year | ||
K (Females) = 0.13 per year | ||
K (East Gulf of Mexico Population) = 0.11 per year | ||
K (West Gulf of Mexico Population) = 0.17 per year | ||
t
0 (All data combined) = −2.14 years | ||
t
0 (Males) = −1.46 years | ||
t
0 (Females) = −4.56 years | ||
t
0 (East Gulf of Mexico Population) = −2.86 years | ||
t
0 (West Gulf of Mexico Population) = −2.36 years | ||
Age at first maturity (50 %) | Females: 2 years | |
Length at first maturity (50 %) | Females: 344 mm (13.5 in.) TL Transition to male: 564 mm (22.2 in.) TL (assuming protogyny occurs) | |
Spawning season | January to June, peak in April; extended season of 9 months or longer may be possible | |
Spawning location | Not available | |
Common prey of juveniles and adults | Decapod crustaceans, squids, salps, bivalve mollusks, annelids, sea cucumbers, actinians, eels, spiny dogfish, and other fish species | |
Common predators of juveniles | Large tilefish and other fish species | Freeman and Turner (1977) |
Common predators of adults | Sharks | Able et al. (1982) |
9.3.9.2 Predators and Prey
9.3.9.3 Key Habitat Needs and Distribution
9.3.9.4 Fisheries
9.3.10 King Mackerel (Scomberomorus cavalla)
Parameter | Value | Reference |
---|---|---|
General geographic distribution | Western Atlantic from Massachusetts to Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, including waters of the Gulf of Mexico and Caribbean Sea. The coastal area from Florida to Massachusetts is inhabited only during the warmer months of the year | |
Commercial importance | Medium | |
Recreational importance | High | |
Management agency | GMFMC and SAFMC | |
Management boundary | Managed as a Gulf of Mexico population in U.S. waters from Texas to Florida and an Atlantic population from the Florida east coast to the Carolinas. During the winter (November 1–March 31), the Flagler-Volusia County line in Florida separates the Gulf of Mexico and Atlantic groups; in the summer (April 1–October 31), the Monroe-Collier County line in Florida separates the two groups. | SEDAR 16 (2009) |
Stock structure within the Gulf of Mexico | Current management defines two migratory units, Gulf of Mexico and South Atlantic. Mixing of the two stocks occurs in the region delimited by the Flagler-Volusia and Monroe-Collier County lines on the Florida coast during the winter months. A third group may be found in the western Gulf of Mexico in Mexico, Texas, and seasonally, in Louisiana. There may also be a well-defined group on the Campeche Banks in the southern Gulf of Mexico that mixes to a low degree with other western and northern Gulf of Mexico stocks. | |
Status (overfished/overfishing) | Overfished from prior to 2000–2003; declared rebuilt in 2008; overfishing occurred prior to 2000 |
Parameter | Value | Reference |
---|---|---|
Habitat preferences and temporal/spatial distribution for juveniles | Epipelagic, neritic tropical, subtropical, and temperate waters; depths from 6 to 46 m (19.7–151 ft); limited by a minimum water temperature of 20 °C; mostly small, young fish <6 years old, migrate south along the Florida Peninsula in late fall and overwinter off South Florida; in spring, as water temperatures warm, fish migrate northward and return to summer spawning grounds. Summer and fall months, inhabit the northern Gulf of Mexico and off the Carolinas | |
Habitat preferences and temporal/spatial distribution for adults | Epipelagic, neritic tropical, subtropical, and temperate waters; depths from 6 to 46 m (19.7–151 ft); north–south migrations tend to follow the 20 °C isotherm; adults follow the same migration patterns as juveniles; however, older, larger fish may inhabit the northern Gulf and waters off the Carolinas year-round | |
Habitat preferences and temporal/spatial distribution for spawning adults | Waters 35–183 m (115–600 ft); over the middle and outer continental shelf in the northeastern and northwestern Gulf of Mexico in spring and summer | |
Designated Essential Fish Habitat | All estuaries in the U.S. Gulf of Mexico; the U.S./Mexico border to the boundary between the areas covered by the GMFMC and the SAFMC from estuarine waters out to depths of 100 fathoms | GMFMC (2005) |
Parameter | Value | Reference |
---|---|---|
von Bertalanffy growth model parameters (see Table 9.6 for explanation) |
L
∞ (Males, western Gulf of Mexico) = 102.9 cm (40.5 in.) FL | DeVries and Grimes (1997) |
L
∞ (Males, eastern Gulf of Mexico) = 102.6 cm (40.4 in.) FL | ||
L
∞ (Males, eastern Gulf of Mexico) = 93 cm (36.6 in.) FL | Shepard et al. (2010) | |
L
∞ (Females, western Gulf of Mexico) = 134.1 cm (52.8 in.) FL | DeVries and Grimes (1997) | |
L
∞ (Females, eastern Gulf of Mexico) = 137.9 cm (54.3 in.) FL | ||
L
∞ (Females, eastern Gulf of Mexico) = 124.5 cm (49 in.) FL | Shepard et al. (2010) | |
L
∞ (Combined sexes, Gulf stock) = 122.4 cm (48.2 in.) FL | ||
L
∞ (Females, Gulf Stock) = 132.8 cm (52.3 in.) FL | ||
L
∞ (Males, Gulf Stock) = 100 cm (39.4 in.) FL | ||
K (Males, western Gulf of Mexico) = 0.20 per year | DeVries and Grimes (1997) | |
K (Males, eastern Gulf of Mexico) = 0.25 per year | ||
K (Males, eastern Gulf of Mexico) = 0.35 per year | Shepard et al. (2010) | |
K (Females, western Gulf of Mexico) = 0.15 per year | DeVries and Grimes (1997) | |
K (Females, eastern Gulf of Mexico) = 0.17 per year | ||
K (Females, eastern Gulf of Mexico) = 0.26 per year | Shepard et al. (2010) | |
K (Combined sexes, Gulf stock) = 0.18 per year | ||
K (Females, Gulf Stock) = 0.17 per year | ||
K (Males, Gulf Stock) = 0.23 per year | ||
t
0 (Males, western Gulf of Mexico) = −2.7 years | DeVries and Grimes (1997) | |
t
0 (Males, eastern Gulf of Mexico) = −1.8 years | ||
t
0 (Males, eastern Gulf of Mexico) = −0.17 years | Shepard et al. (2010) | |
t
0 (Females, western Gulf of Mexico) = −2.7 years | DeVries and Grimes (1997) | |
t
0 (Females, eastern Gulf of Mexico) = −1.8 years | ||
t
0 (Females, eastern Gulf of Mexico) = −0.17 years | Shepard et al. (2010) | |
t
0 (Combined sexes, Gulf stock) = −2.6 years | ||
t
0 (Females, Gulf Stock) = −2.5 years | ||
t
0 (Males, Gulf Stock) = −2.6 years | ||
Age at first maturity | Females: 5–6 years | Johnson et al. (1983) |
Females: 4 years | ||
Males: 3 years | Beaumariage (1973) | |
Length at first maturity | Females: Before reaching 86.1 cm (33.9 in.) FL | Johnson et al. (1983) |
Females: 60.2 cm (23.7 in.) FL; most >70.0 cm (>27.6 in.) FL | Fitzhugh et al. (2008) | |
Females, first occurrence: 45.0–49.9 cm (17.7–19.6 in.) FL | Finucane et al. (1986) | |
Females, 50 %: 55.0–59.9 cm (21.6–23.6 in.) FL | ||
Spawning season | May through October; peak May through July | |
Spawning location | Coastal waters of the southern and northern Gulf of Mexico and off the South Atlantic coast | |
Common prey of juveniles and adults | Schooling fishes including: Spanish sardine, scaled sardine, Atlantic thread herring, round scad, blue runner, Atlantic bumper, weakfish, cutlassfish, flying fish, striped anchovy, and scombrids; shrimps and squids | |
Common predators | Pelagic sharks, little tunny, and dolphins | GMFMC and SAFMC (2011) |
9.3.10.1 Key Life-History Processes and Ecology
9.3.10.2 Predators and Prey
9.3.10.3 Key Habitat Needs and Distribution
9.3.10.4 Fisheries
9.3.11 Dolphinfish (Coryphaena hippurus)
Parameter | Value | Reference |
---|---|---|
von Bertalanffy growth model parameters (see Table 9.6 for explanation) |
L
∞ (Caribbean) = 120.8 cm (47.6 in.) SL; 155.9 cm (61.4 in.) TL | Oxenford (1985) |
L
∞ (Puerto Rico) = 142.7 cm (56.2 in.) FL | Rivera and Appeldoorn (2000) | |
L
∞ (South Florida) = 171.0 cm (67.3 in.) FL | Prager (2000) | |
K (Caribbean) = 3.5 per year | Oxenford (1985) | |
K (Puerto Rico) = 2.2 per year | Rivera and Appeldoorn (2000) | |
K (South Florida) = 0.58 per year | Prager (2000) | |
t
0 (Caribbean) = 0.05 years | Oxenford (1985) | |
t
0 (Puerto Rico) = −0.05 years | Rivera and Appeldoorn (2000) | |
t
0 (South Florida) = 0.7 years | Prager (2000) | |
Age at first maturity | Sexes combined: 6–7 months | Beardsley (1967) |
Females: 3–4 months/Males: 4 months | Bentivoglio (1988) | |
Length at first maturity | Gulf of Mexico, sexes combined: 53.0 cm (20.9 in.) FL | GMFMC and SAFMC (2011) |
Gulf of Mexico, females: 49.0–52.0 cm (19.3–20.5 in.) FL | Bentivoglio (1988) | |
Gulf of Mexico, males: 52.8 cm (20.8 in.) FL | ||
Florida, sexes combined: 35.0 cm (13.8 in.) FL | GMFMC and SAFMC (2011) | |
Florida, females: 35.0 cm (13.8 in.) FL | Beardsley (1967) | |
Florida, males: 42.7 cm (16.8 in.) FL | ||
Spawning season | Spawning season varies with latitude: year-round in the Florida Current, peak from November through July; year- round in southern Gulf of Mexico; at least April through December in northern Gulf of Mexico, peaks in spring and early fall; from June through July in the Gulf Stream near North Carolina | |
Spawning location | Waters warmer than 24 °C in the Atlantic along the Southeast United States, the Gulf of Mexico, Puerto Rico, and Barbados; prefers oceanic waters rather than shelf waters in the Gulf of Mexico | |
Common prey of juveniles and adults | Small fishes, crabs, and shrimps associated with Sargassum; small oceanic pelagic species, such as flying fishes, halfbeaks, mackerels, man-o-war fish, Sargassum fish, and rough triggerfish; juveniles of large oceanic pelagic species, including tunas, billfishes, jacks, and dolphinfish; pelagic larvae of neritic, benthic species, including flying gurnards, triggerfishes, pufferfishes, and grunts; invertebrates such as cephalopods, mysids, and scyphozoans | |
Common predators of juveniles and adults | Large tunas, sharks, marlins, sailfishes, and swordfishes |
Parameter | Value | Reference |
---|---|---|
Habitat preferences and spatial/temporal distribution for juveniles and adults | Tropical and subtropical waters; closely associated with floating objects and Sargassum; able to tolerate salinities from 16 to 26 ppt; typically restricted to waters warmer than 20 °C, but can tolerate temperatures from 15 to 29.3 °C; December through February off Puerto Rico; April through May in the Bahamas; May through June off the Florida east coast and Georgia; June through July off the Carolinas coast; July through August off Bermuda; April through August in the Gulf of Mexico | |
Habitat preferences and spatial/temporal distribution for spawning adults | Waters warmer than 24 °C in the Atlantic along the Southeast United States, Gulf of Mexico, Puerto Rico, and Barbados; prefers oceanic waters rather than shelf waters in the Gulf of Mexico; spawning season varies with latitude; year-round in the Florida Current, peak from November through July; year-round in southern Gulf of Mexico; at least April through December in northern Gulf of Mexico, peaks in spring and early fall; from June through July in the Gulf Stream near North Carolina | |
Designated essential fish habitat | All estuaries in the U.S. Gulf of Mexico; the U.S./Mexico border to the boundary between the areas covered by the GMFMC and the SAFMC from estuarine waters out to depths of 100 fathoms (180 m; 600 ft) | GMFMC (2005) |
Parameter | Value | Reference |
---|---|---|
General geographic distribution | Broadly distributed in tropical to warm-temperate waters of the Atlantic, Pacific, and Indian Oceans; in the North Atlantic, from New England to Brazil, including the Gulf of Mexico and Caribbean | NMFS (2009c) |
Commercial importance | High | |
Recreational importance | High | |
Management agency | South Atlantic, Mid-Atlantic, and New England Fishery Management Councils; included in the GMFMC Coastal Pelagics Fishery, but not the management unit | NMFS (2009c) |
Management boundary | U.S. Atlantic waters; southern boundary at the border between the GMFMC and SAFMC | GMFMC and SAFMC (2011) |
Stock structure within the Gulf of Mexico | Single stock in the Atlantic, U.S. Caribbean, and Gulf of Mexico | |
Status (overfished/overfishing) | No overfishing occurring 2000–2011; not overfished 2000–2011 |
9.3.11.1 Key Life-History Processes and Ecology
9.3.11.2 Predators and Prey
9.3.11.3 Key Habitat Needs and Distribution
9.3.11.4 Fisheries
9.3.12 Striped Mullet (Mugil cephalus)
Parameter | Value | Reference |
---|---|---|
von Bertalanffy growth model parameters (see Table 9.6 for explanation) |
L
∞ (Florida Central West coast, females) = 45.2 cm (17.8 in.) TL | Mahmoudi (1991) |
L
∞ (Florida Central West coast, males) = 36.3 cm (14.3 in.) TL | ||
L
∞ (Apalachicola Bay, Florida, females) = 36.1 cm (14.2 in.) TL | ||
L
∞ (Apalachicola Bay, Florida, males) = 32.8 cm (12.9 in.) TL | ||
L
∞ (Pensacola Bay, Florida, females) = 42.2 cm (16.6 in.) TL | ||
L
∞ (Pensacola Bay, Florida, males) = 36.1 cm (14.2 in.) TL | ||
L
∞ (Veracruz, Mexico, females) = 62.2 cm (24.5 in.) TL | Ibañez Aguirre et al. (1999) | |
L
∞ (Veracruz, Mexico, males) = 60.2 cm (23.7 in.) TL | ||
K (Florida Central West coast, females) = 0.385 per year | Mahmoudi (1991) | |
K (Florida Central West coast, males) = 0.66 per year | ||
K (Apalachicola Bay, Florida, females) = 0.85 per year | ||
K (Apalachicola Bay, Florida, males) = 1.07 per year | ||
K (Pensacola Bay, Florida, females) = 0.42 per year | ||
K (Pensacola Bay, Florida, males) = 0.65 per year | ||
K (Veracruz, Mexico, females) = 0.11 per year | Ibañez Aguirre et al. (1999) | |
K (Veracruz, Mexico, males) = 0.11 per year | ||
t
0 (Florida Central West coast, females) = -0.13 years | Mahmoudi (1991) | |
t
0 (Florida Central West coast, males) = 0.003 years | ||
t
0 (Florida Central West coast, males) = −0.11 years | ||
t
0 (Apalachicola Bay, Florida, males) = −0.17 years | ||
t
0 (Pensacola Bay, Florida, females) = −0.13 years | ||
t
0 (Pensacola Bay, Florida, males) = −0.26 years | ||
t
0 (Veracruz, Mexico, females) = −2.67 years | Ibañez Aguirre et al. (1999) | |
t
0 (Veracruz, Mexico, males) = −2.98 years | ||
Age at first maturity | 2–3 years | |
Length at first maturity | 29–38 cm (11.4–14.9 in.) FL | Mahmoudi (2000) |
Spawning season | Mid-October through late January; peak spawning occurs in November and December for the northern Gulf of Mexico and slightly later in the more southern areas in the eastern and western Gulf of Mexico | |
Spawning location | Typically occurs near the surface in offshore marine waters | Ditty and Shaw (1996) |
Common food sources for juveniles and adults | Epiphytic and benthic microalgae, benthic diatoms and dinoflagellates, plant detritus, and organic sediments | |
Common predators | Common snook, spotted seatrout, red drum, hardhead catfish, southern flounder, bull shark, alligator gar, sea birds, and marine mammals |
Parameter | Value | Reference |
---|---|---|
Habitat preferences and spatial/temporal distribution of juveniles | Nursery areas are thought to be secondary and tertiary bays; salinities ranging from 0 to 35 ppt; temperature from 5 to 34.9 °C; juveniles spend the rest of their first year of life in coastal waters, salt marshes, and estuaries; often move to deeper water in the fall when the adults migrate offshore to spawn; large numbers of immature mullet overwinter in estuaries | |
Habitat preferences and spatial/temporal distribution of adults | Reside in fresh waters and shallow marine and estuarine waters nearshore, including open beaches, flats, lagoons, bays, rivers, salt marshes, and grass beds; prefer soft sediments, such as mud and sand, containing decaying organic detritus, but also occur over fine silt, ground shell, and oyster bars; salinities ranging from 0 to 35 ppt; temperatures from 5 to 34.9 °C; do not move or migrate extensively outside of estuaries, except to spawn | |
Habitat preferences and spatial/temporal distribution of spawning adults | In the fall, large schools of adult mullet gather near the lower parts of rivers and the mouths of bays in preparation for traveling to the open sea; fall and winter: migrate out of bays and estuaries to spawn in deep open water; may also spawn inshore, near passes along outside beaches, and in the ocean near inlets; distances of 8–32 km (4.9–19.9 miles) offshore and in water deeper than 40 m (131.2 ft); spawning has been observed 65–80 km (40.4–49.7 miles) offshore over water 1,000–1,800 m (3,281–5,905 ft) deep in the Gulf of Mexico; in Florida, spawning migrations are typically southward along the east coast and the west coast from Cedar Key to Homosassa; migrations from Tampa Bay are usually northward; return to the estuaries and ascend toward freshwater after the spawning season | |
Designated essential fish habitat | None designated because not federally managed |
Parameter | Value | Reference |
---|---|---|
General geographic distribution | Distributed worldwide inhabiting estuaries and coastal waters in all oceans between latitudes of 42°N and 42°S; in the western Atlantic from Brazil to Nova Scotia; most abundant at sub-tropical latitudes | |
Commercial importance | Medium | |
Recreational importance | High | |
Management agency | The GSMFC; individual Gulf States are directly responsible for management | Leard et al. (1995) |
Management boundary | State jurisdictional waters | |
Stock structure within the Gulf of Mexico | The total population of striped mullet occurring in the U.S. Gulf of Mexico is considered a unit stock. However, due to limited movements, populations may be managed under regional or state-specific management programs. | |
Status (overfished/overfishing) | Florida stocks not subject to overfishing from 1995 to 2007; not overfished from 1995 to 2007 |
9.3.12.1 Key Life-History Processes and Ecology
9.3.12.2 Predators and Prey
9.3.12.3 Key Habitat Needs and Distribution
9.3.12.4 Fisheries
9.3.13 Greater Amberjack (Seriola dumerili)
Parameter | Value | Reference |
---|---|---|
von Bertalanffy growth model parameters (see Table 9.6 for explanation) |
L
∞ (Combined sexes, Gulf of Mexico) = 111 cm (43.7 in.) FL | Manooch and Potts (1997a) |
L
∞ (Combined sexes, Gulf of Mexico) = 171.2 cm (67.4 in.) FL | Schirripa and Burns (1997) | |
L
∞ (Combined sexes, Gulf of Mexico) = 138.9 cm (54.7 in.) FL | ||
K (Combined sexes, Gulf of Mexico) = 0.23 per year | Manooch and Potts (1997a) | |
K (Combined sexes, Gulf of Mexico) = 0.26 per year | Schirripa and Burns (1997) | |
K (Combined sexes, Gulf of Mexico) = 0.25 per year | ||
t
0 (Combined sexes, Gulf of Mexico) = −0.72 years | Manooch and Potts (1997a) | |
t
0 (Combined sexes, Gulf of Mexico) = −0.04 years | Schirripa and Burns (1997) | |
t
0 (Combined sexes, Gulf of Mexico) = −0.79 years | ||
Age at first maturity | Females: 1–6 years | Harris et al. (2007) |
Females, 50 %: 3–4 years | ||
Females, 50 %: 3 years | Thompson et al. (1991) | |
Females, 50 %: 4 years | SEDAR 9 Update (2011) | |
Length at first maturity | Smallest female: 50.1 cm (19.7 in.) FL | Murie and Parkyn (2010) |
Females, 50 %: 85–90 cm (33.5–35.4 in.) FL | ||
Females, 50 %: 71.9–74.5 cm (28.3–29.3 in.) FL | Harris et al. (2007) | |
Spawning season | March through June, peak around April through May | |
Spawning location | In the Atlantic, from North Carolina to the Florida Keys, concentrated in areas off South Florida and the Florida Keys; it is not known if the Gulf of Mexico population utilizes the spawning area off South Florida; Gulf of Mexico spawning aggregations have not been discussed in the literature | |
Common prey of adults | Bigeye scad, sardines, and squids | Andovora and Pipitone (1997) |
Common predators | Yellowfin tuna, European hake, brown noddy, and sooty tern | Andovora and Pipitone (1997) |
Parameter | Value | Reference |
---|---|---|
Habitat preferences and temporal/spatial distribution of juveniles | Associated with pelagic Sargassum mats until 5–6 months of age, after which juveniles transition to adult habitat, including reefs, rock outcrops, and wrecks; YOY are most common during May and June in offshore waters of the Gulf of Mexico | |
Habitat preferences and temporal/spatial distribution of adults | Pelagic and epibenthic; congregate around reefs, rock outcrops, and wrecks in depths ranging from 18 to 72 m (59–236.2 ft); tagging studies of the Gulf of Mexico population demonstrated no trends in movement; in the northern Gulf of Mexico, movements appear random; some fish from West-Central Florida move to South Florida, where some evidence of stock mixing occurs | |
Habitat preferences and temporal/spatial distribution of spawning adults | In the South Atlantic, known to spawn over both the middle and outer shelf, as well as on upper-slope reefs from 45 to 122 m (147.6–400.3 ft), with bottom temperatures around 24 °C; during the winter, individuals from the Atlantic population move into Florida’s Atlantic waters for spring spawning, which primarily occurs off South Florida and the Florida Keys during April and May; some fish from West-Central Florida showed movement to South Florida, where some evidence of stock mixing occurs | |
Designated essential fish habitat | All Gulf of Mexico estuaries; the U.S./Mexico border to the boundary between the areas covered by the GMFMC and the SAFMC from estuarine waters out to depths of 100 fathoms | GMFMC (2005) |
Parameter | Value | Reference |
---|---|---|
General geographic distribution | A pelagic and epibenthic, reef-associated species with circumglobal distribution in warm-temperate waters; in the western Atlantic, ranges from Nova Scotia to Brazil, including Bermuda, the Gulf of Mexico, and the Caribbean | |
Commercial importance | Medium | |
Recreational importance | Medium–High | |
Management agency | GMFMC (Gulf stock) and SAFMC (Atlantic stock) | SEDAR 9 (2006) |
Management boundary | The geographic boundary of the Gulf and Atlantic management units occurs from approximately the Dry Tortugas through the Florida Keys and to the mainland of Florida | |
Stock structure within the Gulf of Mexico | Gulf stock inhabits the northern Gulf of Mexico and along Southwest Florida; Atlantic stock inhabits South Florida, the Florida Keys, and the U.S. South Atlantic region | |
Status (overfished/overfishing) | Overfishing occurring from 2004 to 2011; overfished from 2001 to 2011 |
9.3.13.1 Key Life-History Processes and Ecology
9.3.13.2 Predators and Prey
9.3.13.3 Key Habitat Needs and Distribution
9.3.13.4 Fisheries
9.4 Population Dynamics of Shark and Ray Species
9.4.1 General Introduction
9.4.2 Stock Assessment and Management History
9.4.3 Small Coastal Sharks Group
9.4.3.1 Atlantic Sharpnose Shark
9.4.3.2 Blacknose Shark
9.4.3.3 Bonnethead Shark
9.4.3.4 Finetooth Shark
9.4.4 Large Coastal Sharks Group
9.4.4.1 Sandbar Shark
9.4.4.2 Blacktip Shark
9.4.5 Pelagic Sharks Group
9.4.6 Prohibited Sharks
9.4.6.1 Prohibited Sharks Formerly in the Small Coastal Sharks Group
9.4.6.2 Prohibited Sharks Formerly in the Large Coastal Sharks Group
9.4.6.3 Prohibited Sharks Formerly in the Pelagic Sharks Group
9.4.7 Rays and Skates
9.5 Summary
Species | Fishery status | Key habitat | Other important information |
---|---|---|---|
Red snapper (Lutjanus campechanus) | Overfishing occurring 2001–2012; stock overfished 2001–2012 | Structured habitat and reefs across shelf to shelf edge | Found throughout Gulf of Mexico, long life span, mature at young ages |
Menhaden, including Gulf menhaden (Brevoortia patronus), finescale menhaden (Brevoortia gunteri), and yellowfin menhaden (Brevoortia smithi) | Overfishing not occurring; stock not overfished in the 2000s | Estuaries and other quiet low salinity nearshore habitat for juveniles, open bay and Gulf waters with vegetable bottom for adults | Found throughout coastal Gulf of Mexico, high habitat elasticity to adapt to changes in habitat |
Red grouper (Epinephelus morio) | Overfished 2000–2002; overfishing 2002; not overfished and no overfishing 2005–2008, but some local subpopulations in northeastern and southern portion of the Gulf of Mexico overfished and overfishing occurring | Shallow nearshore reefs and seagrass beds for juveniles, shore rocky bottom ledges and caverns in limestone reefs for mature adults | Limited movement, large spatial variability in life history, complex stock structure and possible existence of local subpopulations |
Atlantic bluefin tuna (Thunnus thynnus) | Large uncertainty in status depending on the assumption on stock productivity; most likely overfishing and overfished prior to the 2000s | Epipelagic and oceanic, feeding inshore, spawn in northern Gulf of Mexico | Highly migratory, strictly regulated, highly priced |
Atlantic blue marlin (Makaira nigricans) | Overfishing and overfished 2000–2011 | Epipelagic and oceanic, blue waters associated with the Loop Current | No commercial fishery in the United States, highly migratory |
Atlantic swordfish (Xiphias gladius) | Overfished and overfishing 2000–2002; considered rebuilt and not overfished; no overfishing since 2002 | Pelagic-oceanic | Highly migratory, valuable sport fishery |
Atlantic sailfish (Istiophorus albicans) | Overfished 2000–2005; overfishing occurring from 2001 to 2003; not overfished from 2006 to 2011 | Oceanic, but migrate into shallow waters | Highly migratory, tropic and temperate waters |
Red drum (Sciaenops ocellatus) | Overfished 2000–2005; overfishing 2000–2003; not overfished 2006–2011 | Found in coastal beaches and nearshore shelf waters | Complex stock structure, commercial fishery prohibited in federal waters, valuable sport fishery |
Striped mullet (Mugil cephalus) | No Gulf-wide assessment; Florida stock not overfished 1995–2007; overfishing not occurring 1995–2007 | Nursery grounds in secondary and tertiary bays, shallow inshore marine and estuarine waters, soft sediment | Inshore fishery, important recreational fishery |
Greater amberjack (Seriola dumerili) | Overfished 2001–2011; overfishing occurring 2004–2011 | Pelagic Sargassum mats until 5–6 months old, reefs, rock outcrops and wrecks, pelagic and epibenthic | Like congregation |
Tilefish (Lopholatilus chamaeleonticeps) | Not overfished and no overfishing; large uncertainty in the status | Demersal living in burrows in mud, silt and clay sediments along the continental slopes | Long lived, slow growth, complex breeding process, habitat specificity, sensitivity to changes in habitat |
King mackerel (Scomberomorus cavalla) | Overfishing occurring prior to 2000; overfished 2000–2003; declared rebuilt 2008 | Epipelagic tropic, subtropic and temperate waters | Opportunistic carnivores |
Dolphinfish (Coryphaena hippurus) | Overfishing not occurring 2000–2011; not overfished 2000–2011 | Tropical and warm-temperate waters | One of the fastest growing species, high commercial and recreational values |
-
Inshore estuaries in the Gulf of Mexico are critical habitats because they are ideal nursery and feeding grounds for most finfish and shark species, providing food and refuge from juvenile predation.
-
The Gulf of Mexico provides critical spawning grounds for many highly migratory fish and shark species of great ecological, commercial, and recreational importance.
-
Only a small fraction (4.6 %) of finfish is endemic to the Gulf of Mexico, although some fish species of commercial and recreational importance can complete their entire life cycle within the Gulf of Mexico ecosystem.
-
Almost half of finfish species in the Gulf of Mexico are omnipresent and can be found throughout the Gulf; the other half is limited to parts of the Gulf of Mexico.
-
Many fish species in the Gulf of Mexico experience inshore–offshore movement in response to changes in environmental conditions (e.g., thermal habitat) and/or needs of life-history processes (e.g., spawning).
-
Fish species differ widely in their ability to adapt to changes in the biotic and abiotic environment in the Gulf of Mexico; omnipresent species are the most robust in adapting to changes in habitat.
-
There is large spatiotemporal variability in key life-history parameters (e.g., growth and maturation) for many Gulf of Mexico fish species.
-
Many fish species in the Gulf are often considered a unit fish stock, which implicitly assumes adequate Gulf-wide mixing for fisheries stock assessment and management, even though evidence suggests complex stock structure within the Gulf of Mexico (e.g., existence of meta-population or local populations as a result of spatial isolations).
-
A wide variety of short-term and long-term anthropogenic and natural stressors, such as rapid coastal development, pollution, heavy fishing, climate change, and natural disasters, have reduced the resilience and robustness of the Gulf of Mexico ecosystem with respect to human and natural perturbations.
-
Different fish species tend to respond to fishing and changes in habitat in different ways. Some species are more sensitive, and others are more robust with respect to changes in fishing mortality and habitat.
-
High fishing pressure and degraded environment have changed key life-history parameters of important fish species in the Gulf of Mexico, e.g., reduced size at age and earlier maturation, reduced stock reproductive potential, increased temporal fluctuation of recruitment, and impaired ability of fish stocks to recover from low stock abundance.
-
Many finfish and shark species of great ecological, commercial, and recreational importance have been subject to overfishing and being overfished. Their present population abundances tend to be much lower compared to historic levels, which may be the result of a combination of factors, including high fishing pressure, large bycatch mortality, and recruitment failure likely due to low spawning stock biomass and/or unfavorable environmental conditions.
-
Recent management regulations appear to have been effective in improving the population levels of some important fish species, which have recovered or are moving towards recovery from overfishing and/or overfished status.
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No formal stock assessment had been done for the vast majority of fish species in the Gulf of Mexico immediately prior to the Deepwater Horizon event, and subsequently, there is limited knowledge about the status of these fish species (e.g., if they are overfished and/or if overfishing is occurring).