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2023 | Book

Handbook of II-VI Semiconductor-Based Sensors and Radiation Detectors

Vol. 3: Sensors, Biosensors and Radiation Detectors

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About this book

The reference provides interdisciplinary discussion for diverse II-VI semiconductors with a wide range of topics. The third volume of a three volume set, the book provides an up-to-date account of the present status of multifunctional II-VI semiconductors, from fundamental science and processing to their applications as various sensors, biosensors, and radiation detectors, and based on them to formulate new goals for the further research. The chapters in this volume provide a comprehensive overview of the manufacture, parameters and principles of operation of these devices. The application of these devices in various fields such medicine, agriculture, food quality control, environment monitoring and others is also considered. The analysis carried out shows the great potential of II-VI semiconductor-based sensors and detectors for these applications.

Considers solid-state radiation detectors based on semiconductors of II-VI group and their applications;Analyzes the advantages of II-VI compounds to develop chemical and optical gas and ion sensors; Describes all types of biosensors based on II-VI semiconductors and gives examples of their use in various fields.

Table of Contents

Frontmatter

X-Ray Radiation Detectors

Frontmatter
Chapter 1. Basic Principles of Solid-State X-Ray Radiation Detector Operation
Abstract
The basic principle of operation of an X-ray detector is described through the X-ray interactions with the photoconductor, the ionization energy, and signal formulation mechanisms in photoconductive radiation detectors. Typical X-ray radiation detector materials and structures are also described. The X-ray detectors are classified based on their applications. The spectroscopic detector operation is explained, and its energy resolution is discussed. Flat panel X-ray imagers (FPXIs) are described in detail due to their extensive use in imaging, especially, in medical X-ray imaging. The materials for direct conversion detectors (the absorbed X-ray photons directly create charge carriers in the photoconductor) and various image read-out devices (e.g., a-Si:H TFT and CMOS active-matrix technologies) are discussed. The imaging performance of FPXIs critically depends on the photoconductor material used in the X-ray detector. This chapter discusses the effects of charge carrier transport properties on the imaging performances such as X-ray sensitivity, resolution in terms of modulation transfer function, detective quantum efficiency, image lag, and ghosting. A brief introduction to the X-ray interaction position sensitive semiconductor detector structures and the effects of small pixels on charge collection and resolution are described in this chapter.
M. Zahangir Kabir
Chapter 2. CdTe-/CdZnTe-Based Radiation Detectors
Abstract
The review is devoted to using bulk single crystals and thick films of cadmium telluride, as well as solid solutions based on it, as detector material. The main types of solid-state detectors of hard radiation and the criteria for choosing the optimal material for their creation are considered. It was found that to assess the ability of the detector material to accumulate and register radiation-induced charges, it makes sense to use three parameters: charge carrier mobility (μe,h), their lifetime (τ), and resistivity (ρ), giving preference to substances with a maximum value of these quantities. Grading of materials based on the effectiveness of detecting harsh radiation is carried out. It is shown that the most attractive materials, suitable for creating detectors with high radiation recording efficiency and good energy resolution, operating even at room temperature, are CdTe and some solid solutions based on it. The main physical characteristics of CdTe, ZnTe, Cd1 − xZnxTe (CZT) compounds and the features of their phase diagrams, which determine the possibility of their use as a detection material, are considered. The methods of growing bulk CdTe crystals, solid solutions based on them, and the peculiarities of obtained single crystals microstructure are briefly described. The characteristics of some detectors based on single crystals of cadmium telluride and CZT are given. It is shown that for many applications, instead of massive single crystals, thick films of these materials can be used. It can significantly reduce the cost of the detectors and solve some problems related to the inhomogeneity of the composition of the solid solution along the thickness of the ingot. The issues of using CdTe and CZT films in hard radiation detectors are considered, and examples of creating real devices based on them are given.
A. Opanasyuk, D. Kurbatov, Ya. Znamenshchykov, O. Diachenko, M. Ivashchenko
Chapter 3. ZnS-Based Neutron and Alpha Radiation Detectors
Abstract
Problems requiring the detection of neutron radiation are considered, and a description of approaches that can be used for this is given. It is shown that the use of ZnS doped with Ag as a scintillator and 6LiF as a converter converting neutron radiation into a beam of alpha particles and tritons is the best combination for developing neutron detectors. The methods used for the synthesis of ZnS(Ag) aimed for use in detectors are considered. The analysis of possible designs of neutron detectors is given. It is shown that the use of wave length shifting fibers and multi-anode PMTs and flat-panel multi-anode PMTs can significantly simplify the development of position-sensitive neutron detectors. The results of testing the detectors are presented. An analysis of the market for neutron detectors and ZnS-based scintillator screens is given. The approaches used to detect fast neutrons are considered. Devices for large scientific projects developed on the basis of ZnS/6LiF scintillators are described. Possibilities of simultaneous detection of various ionizing radiations using phoswich technology are shown.
Ghenadii Korotcenkov, Michail Ivanov
Chapter 4. ZnSe- and CdSe-Based Radiation Detectors
Abstract
Radiation detection is of vital importance in the modern-day world as high-energy ionizing radiation is utilized in several areas such as health care and energy generation. Heavy or prolonged radiation exposure proves detrimental to human health as it has the capacity to penetrate human cells and cause deadly diseases. ZnSe and CdSe are some of the most widely used inorganic materials for efficient radiation detection. In this chapter, we have discussed the synthesis techniques used for fabrication of scintillators in detail along with its scintillating performance. Furthermore, the effect of doping-induced enhanced scintillating properties of the parent material and their application in the areas of medicine, space exploration, high-energy physics, etc., are also summarized here.
Shweta Jagtap, Madhushree Bute, Sapana Rane, Suresh Gosavi
Chapter 5. Medical Applications of II-VI Semiconductor-Based Radiation Detectors
Abstract
Medical application, in particular nuclear medicine, is one of the most promising fields of application of II-VI semiconductor-based radiation detectors. This chapter provides a description of this section of clinical medicine and discusses basic diagnostic and treatment methods such as single photon emission computed tomography (SPECT), positron emission tomography (PET), computed tomography (CT), and radiation therapy. The radiation detectors used in these devices are analyzed and the advantages of semiconductor radiation detectors for such applications are given. The use of radiation detectors in digital radiography, which includes chest X-ray imaging, high-resolution dental digital radiography systems, mammography, and bone densitometry, is discussed in detail. Examples of devices developed on the basis of II-VI semiconductor-based radiation detectors are given.
Ghenadii Korotcenkov, Sergiu Vatavu

Electric and Electronic Chemical Sensors

Frontmatter
Chapter 6. Introduction in Gas Sensing
Abstract
This chapter is a kind of introduction to the subject of gas sensing, which is discussed in the following chapters. In particular, the need to control the composition of the gas atmosphere in various fields from environmental monitoring and process control to medicine and agriculture is substantiated. It also provides a classification and description of the principles of operation of various sensors used to detect toxic and explosive gases. The properties of II-VI compounds are compared with those of metal oxides, and a conclusion is made about the prospects of these compounds for the development of efficient gas sensors, such as conductometric and optical gas sensors. Examples of the implementation of such sensors based on II-VI compounds are given.
Ghenadii Korotcenkov, Vladimir Brinzari
Chapter 7. II-VI Semiconductor-Based Thin Film Electric and Electronic Gas Sensors
Abstract
This chapter describes II-VI semiconductor films that have been applied to sensing various gases and vapors. Their gas responses have been stimulated by heat or light, and their readouts are enabled by transducing elements that usually comprise resistive principles. Previous studies on gas-sensitive II-VI semiconductors have consistently shown that these materials must meet similar requirements to other gas-sensitive materials, such as metal oxides. These requirements include small grain size, high porosity, optimal charge carrier concentration, and high chemical surface activity. Hence, part of the research on II-VI semiconductors as gas-sensitive elements involves exploring methods and routes that allow tailoring the semiconductor’s morphology, structure, chemical, and electronic properties. Among various available synthetic routes for II-VI semiconductors, chemical bath, precipitation, or hydrothermal processes are the most popular methods, usually assisted by other secondary deposition methods to integrate the synthesized materials over the appropriate gas sensing transducing platforms. The integrated II-VI semiconducting compounds are generally in the form of thin or thick layers containing spherical-like particles or other low-dimensional or hierarchical structures in the form of flakes or dendrites. These low-dimensional or hierarchical structures typically report superior gas responses than traditional spherical-like particles. Here we discuss in detail the fabrication processes, synthetic routes, and gas sensing properties of II-VI semiconducting films. The discussion addresses the most common factors influencing II-VI semiconductors’ gas sensing properties, their possible gas sensing mechanism(s), and the metrics of their functionality.
Stella Vallejos, Chris Blackman
Chapter 8. Nanocomposite and Hybrid-Based Electric and Electronic Gas Sensors
Abstract
This chapter considers the methods for the synthesis of II-VI semiconductors (cadmium and zinc chalcogenides) in the nanocrystalline state, methods for the formation of nanocomposites containing II-VI semiconductors, and summarizes the sensor properties of these composites under thermal and light activation. When detecting gases under thermal activation, the role of II-VI semiconductors in such nanocomposites in most cases is the manipulation of the energy barrier formed due to band bending of contacting semiconductors. Under photoactivation, II-VI semiconductors are responsible for the visible light absorption followed by the generation of photoexcited charge carriers.
Roman B. Vasiliev, Artem S. Chizhov, Marina N. Rumyantseva
Chapter 9. II–VI Semiconductor-Polymer Nanocomposites and Their Gas-Sensing Properties
Abstract
Hybrid nanocomposites with performance are prepared using II–VI semiconductors and polymers. The II–VI semiconductor-polymer nanocomposite has advantage of both the II–VI semiconductors and polymers. The most important features of II–VI semiconductor nanomaterials are increased surface-to-volume ratio, bandgap modulation and catalytic behaviour. The polymers have the advantage of low-temperature processing and are sensitive to low concentrations of hazardous gases. The conducting polymer has the additional advantage of reducing any void in the thin film of nanostructured II–VI semiconductors. These nanocomposites have some specific advantages, and accordingly, they are used in electronic devices and sensors. Generally, Cd and Zn-based nanomaterials are utilised for the synthesis of nanocomposites for gas-sensing applications. CdSe-polymer and CdS-polymer nanocomposites have been used largely for the fabrication of gas sensors. CdS-polyaniline nanocomposite has shown the highest gas response for nitrogen dioxide gas, whereas maximum gas response is obtained in CdSe-PQT-12 nanocomposite-based sensor. II–VI semiconductor-polymer nanocomposites include advantages such as tailored selectivity, mechanical flexibility, improved long-term stability, etc. The surface modification and selective window for the sensing can improve the lifetime of the nanocomposite-based gas sensors.
Chandan Kumar, Satyabrata Jit, Sumit Saxena, Shobha Shukla
Chapter 10. Nanomaterial-Based Electric and Electronic Gas Sensors
Abstract
Great attention has been dedicated to the development and use of solid-state gas sensors based on nanostructured semiconductors in recent decades. Metal oxide semiconductors (MOSs) are definitely the most investigated materials, but they have shown several shortcomings, including the lack of selectivity and stability over time, which have limited their use in many applications. This has led researchers to design and synthesise advanced nanostructured materials based on other types of semiconductors, able to overcome the limitations of MOSs towards the development of devices with optimised sensing performance. Among several alternatives, nanostructured II–VI transition metal chalcogenides (TMCs) are promising candidates for gas sensor development, due to their very interesting physicochemical features. These include: (i) wide and tunable bandgap; (ii) size-tunable radiation absorption and emission; (iii) catalytic and photocatalytic properties and (iv) the possibility to tune the nanostructure morphology and crystal structure by using simple and inexpensive methods. Although scarcely investigated in the gas sensing field so far, preliminary studies published over the last 10 years have shown peculiar sensing properties of TMCs, which could open up a future integration of these materials into commercial gas monitoring devices.
This chapter presents a critical analysis of the state of the art related to the synthesis and use of II–VI TMC nanomaterials (NMs) for the development of electrical and electronic gas sensors.
Andrea Gaiardo, Barbara Fabbri, Matteo Valt
Chapter 11. II–VI Semiconductor-Based Humidity Sensors
Abstract
This chapter discusses the problems associated with monitoring the amount of water vapors in the atmosphere. This is an important issue because, due to the unique properties of water, humidity of the atmosphere strongly affects living organisms, including humans, and materials. Currently, the most common devices used to measure humidity of the air are solid-state humidity sensors such as conductometric, capacitive, and quartz crystal microbalance-based sensors. Their construction and principles of operation are described in this chapter. It has been shown that the properties of II–VI compounds are very sensitive to changes in humidity; therefore, these materials can indeed be used to develop humidity sensors of indicated types. Examples of the implementation of humidity sensors both based on II–VI compounds and based on their composites with polymers are given. The use of 1D nanostructures of II–VI connections in the development of humidity sensors is also discussed in this chapter.
Ghenadii Korotcenkov, Michail Ivanov, Vladimir Brinzari

Optical Sensors

Frontmatter
Chapter 12. II–VI Semiconductor-Based Optical Gas Sensors
Abstract
Optical gas sensors are the one which utilize optical properties of materials that responds by the infusion of gas in the environment. Optical gas sensors play an important role in detecting, controlling and reducing air pollution. Also, these optical-based gas sensors are used to prevent workers from fire and explosions. II–VI semiconductors are the most promising ones for optical gas sensors owing to their band gap, size and shape-dependent optical properties, facile synthesis methods and ability to form colloidal solution of nanostructures. This chapter discusses about the various optical methods viz. photoluminescence (PL), fluorescence (FL), fibre optics, surface plasmon resonance (SPR), etc., based gas sensors utilizing different morphologies like 1D, quantum dots, core-shell, embedded in matrix, etc. The introduction is about the need for optical gas sensors, the suitability of II–VI semiconductors, and the parameters used for optical gas sensors. The next section deals with different PL-based gas sensors with different morphologies of II–VI semiconductor materials followed by FL-based gas sensors. Some other optical methods like chemiluminescence, cataluminescence and optical absorption are mentioned in the next section. Further, two sections deal with SPR-based and fibre optics-based gas sensors, respectively, followed by a concrete conclusion that explains the challenges of II–VI materials-based optical gas sensors.
Savita Sharma, Ayushi Paliwal, Pragati Kumar, Nupur Saxena
Chapter 13. Spectroscopic Gas Sensing Systems
Abstract
Spectroscopic gas sensing is becoming popular in wide range of areas including urban and industrial emission, environmental monitoring, chemical and industrial process control, medical diagnostics, homeland security and scientific research. Spectroscopy in the mid-infrared region (MIR, 2.5–25 μm) is attractive due to the strong fundamental ro-vibrational bands and the highly specific molecular signature, which allows both identification and quantification of the molecular species. In this chapter, we introduce the spectroscopic gas sensing systems based on a tunable laser. After a brief overview of the technical background (Sect. 13.1) and the principle of spectroscopy (Sect. 13.2), we discuss the system configurations, including pump suction system, diffusion gas sensors, open path sensing system and spectroscopic imaging systems. Two types of especially distinctive gas sensing, that is, miniaturized hollow waveguide gas sensor and standoff sensing with non-cooperative targets, are reviewed in this section. Recent developments of spectroscopic applications with II–VI lasers are in Sect. 13.4. Section 13.5 gives briefly the conclusion and prospects.
Zhenhui Du, Jinyi Li
Chapter 14. Luminescence and Fluorescence Ion Sensing
Abstract
Heavy metal ions including Cu2+, Zn2+, Pb2+, Hg2+ and Ag2+ are vital minerals that are required for the proper functioning of various systems in living organisms. However, an excess amount of these ions may result in severe health problems and malfunctioning of different processes. Furthermore, the presence of these heavy metal ions in underground water also poses environmental threats. Ultra-sensitive detection of these heavy metal ions is therefore, quite important. Semiconductor quantum dots (QDs), especially II–VI QDs can play a very important role in the optical detection of these ions. Moreover, the surface of QDs can be engineered with specific molecules for selective and sensitive detection of a particular heavy metal ion in the presence of other ions. Below we discuss the luminescence and fluorescence detection methods of some important heavy metals including copper, mercury and lead in solution and the ion sensing ability of II–VI QDs. Mechanisms of operation of ion sensors based on QDs, features and advantaged of ratiometric ion sensors for detecting metal ions are also considered in this chapter.
Faheem Amin, Yasir Iqbal, Ghenadii Korotcenkov
Chapter 15. Photoelectrochemical Ion Sensors
Abstract
Environmental pollution poses threat to living organisms and ecosystem owing to various heavy metal ion-based toxic pollutants. It is highly essential to design a simple, low-cost, and reliable approach to detect these pollutants in the environment. It is known that the existing sophisticated traditional detection techniques require a very high maintenance as compared to the one that is required in the photoelectrochemical (PEC) method. PEC is a low-cost, promising technique to convert chemical to electrical energy using light photons and at an applied electrical bias. PEC sensors play a significant role in chemical as well as biosensing due to their ability to detect biomolecules. These sensors employ light as a source as input, and a generated photocurrent as output signal that imparts high sensitivity and selectivity during the detection. The light sensitivity of semiconductors and electrochemical response render these sensors a precise capability of detecting various chemical and biological species. This book chapter emphasises on the principle and mechanism of photo-induced charge generation and consequent charge separation in the PEC sensors. The critical and crucial processes involved in the sensing mechanism of PEC process are briefly discussed to improve the understanding in the area of detection. The concise study of the progress in photoactive materials including metal-oxide, cadmium-chalcogenides, quantum-dots, carbon-based and other potential materials, is presented. Application of the PEC sensors for the detection of metal ions is briefly explained in conjunction to present chapter.
Alka Pareek, Pramod H. Borse
Chapter 16. II–VI Semiconductor-Based Optical Temperature Sensors
Abstract
Temperature sensors or thermometers are devices that are being utilised from households to space stations and from small-scale industries to mega industries of any kind. Temperature is a fundamental quantity in the physical world, the measurement of which is explicitly important. This chapter presents an overview on a very important aspect of these temperature sensors, that is, optical temperature sensors. On the other hand, II–VI semiconductor materials are very important owing to their splendid optical properties. Hence, a number of methods and a number of parameters can be employed to realise temperature sensing, viz. luminescence, fluorescence, fibre optics, surface plasmon resonance, etc. This chapter intends to attend to all these aspects one by one. The high-end applications of temperature sensors in biological imaging and diagnosis of HeLa cells, human umbilical vein endothelial cells (HUVEC) and prostate cancer cells (PC-3) are underlined in this chapter. Finally, a concrete conclusion including current challenges, possible remedies and future prospects are discussed at the end.
Nupur Saxena, Pragati Kumar

Biosensors

Frontmatter
Chapter 17. Introduction to Biosensing
Abstract
The biosensor is an analytical device that consists of two main segments; a physicochemical converter, a transducer, and a biological element, a bio-receptor, whose functions are performed by enzymes, proteins, nucleic acids, and microorganisms. As a result of the interaction of the bio-receptor with the analyte using a transducer, an electrical or optical signal is generated that is proportional to the analyte. This chapter considers the types of biosensors, their specifics, possible configuration, materials used, and manufacturing and operation features. A brief description of electrochemical, optical, and physical biosensors, as well as enzyme biosensors, aptasensors, protein sensors, immunosensors, cell-based biosensors, and biochips is given. It has been shown that the use of nanomaterials such as quantum dots, nanoparticles, and core-shell structures improves the efficiency of biosensors. The main areas of application of biosensors are considered. It is shown that biosensors can become alternative analytical tools with high efficiency, high sensitivity, and selectivity for applications in various fields such as medicine, agriculture, food quality control, environment monitoring, etc.
Ghenadii Korotcenkov, Rabiu Garba Ahmad, Praveen Guleria, Vineet Kumar
Chapter 18. Fluorescent Biosensors Based on II–VI Quantum Dots
Abstract
This chapter presents the fluorescent biosensors (FBSs) using II–VI compound quantum dots (QDs). To make it easier for the readers to follow, we organise the chapter as follows. First, we briefly describe what biosensors are, paying more attention to the FBSs. Particularly, the unique advantages of fluorescent II–VI QDs in FBSs, despite certain limitations relating to the Cd-containing toxicity to the human body, are made clear. Then, aiming to possible applications, FBSs can be reasonably classified into five kinds for detecting: (i) viruses, mycotoxins, pathogens, specific proteins, enzymes, nucleic acids, cellular, in vivo targeting imaging for diagnostics, disease treatments and health care; (ii) residues of pesticides, herbicides, growth-promoting hormone in agricultural productions; (iii) banned/toxic residuals, bacteria-contaminated in foods, drinking water, agricultural products for food safety; (iv) heavy metals in environmental samples and (v) latent fingerprints, security markers and TNT explosive for criminal, forensic and security investigations. In each kind of FBS, we illustrate the structure/design, operating principle, signal detection, sensitivity/limit of detection, linearity, precision/repeatability and reproducibility, as well as its advantages/disadvantages. Finally, in the conclusion, we remark the FBSs based on II–VI QDs possess unique advantages such as easy fabrication, high fluorescence efficiency in the whole UV-to-IR spectral region, large Stokes shift with the emission dependent on their size or composition, particularly when they are in the type-II quantum structure that has long fluorescence decay time for fluorescence imaging out from the natural/self-fluorescence noise.
Nguyen Thu Loan, Ung Thi Dieu Thuy, Nguyen Quang Liem
Chapter 19. QDs-Based Chemiluminescence Biosensors
Abstract
Chemiluminescence (CL) is commonly defined as the emission of light by a molecule as a result of a chemical reaction. CL assay has significant advantages including high sensitivity, no external light source, rapid analysis, easy automation, and convenient operation, which has broad applications in clinical diagnosis, drug analysis, and environmental monitoring. Colloidal semiconductor nanocrystals or quantum dots (QDs) are one of the most important advances in the rapidly growing world of nanotechnology. QDs are made of semiconductor material with unique tunable optoelectronic properties, as well as physical dimensions, that have attracted multidisciplinary research efforts to advance their potential bioanalytical applications and have been the potential alternatives to CL emitters. Of the semiconductor families investigated to date, II–VI materials have shown the most promise, and consequently, their use in biological applications has predominated. Therefore, this chapter will focus on the advances and applications of II–VI semiconductor materials in the biological sciences.
Fahimeh Ghavamipour, Reza H. Sajedi
Chapter 20. Electrochemiluminescent Biosensors Based on II–VI Quantum Dots
Abstract
II–VI semiconductor quantum dots (QDs) have attracted much attention due to their wideband absorption, narrowband emission, and continuously adjustable wavelength. In recent decades, electrochemiluminescence (ECL) biosensor related to II-VI semiconductor quantum dots has shown broad development prospects and made great achievements. Deep insight into the applications of II–VI semiconductor quantum dots in ECL biosensing platforms will benefit the design of advanced biosensors in the future. This chapter will briefly summarize the ECL mechanism of II–VI semiconductor quantum dots, the ECL signal transduction strategies, and the application of II–VI semiconductor quantum dots in biosensors such as immunosensor, aptasensor, genosensor, and molecularly imprinted polymer-based sensor. Furthermore, recent developments of ECL biosensors, relevant signal amplification methodologies, and an outlook for the construction of highly sensitive ECL biosensors based on various II–VI semiconductor quantum dots are also discussed.
Xiao-Yan Wang, Zhi-Yuan Che, Shou-Nian Ding
Chapter 21. Electrochemical Biosensors
Abstract
Semiconductors made from group 12 and 16 elements are referred to as group II–VI semiconductors. These include group 12 elements such as cadmium and zinc and group 16 elements, called chalcogens, such as sulfur, selenium, and telluride. Combination of these elements results in various core–shell structures such as cadmium selenide, cadmium sulfide, cadmium telluride, and various zinc-based chalcogens. These elements have low band gap and have high optical activity. As a result, these materials have been largely explored for the development of optical-based biosensors, especially fluorescent and chemiluminescent based.
Other than optical activity, these materials exhibit good electrochemical properties as well due to their low band gap but still these core–shell materials have been less exploited for utilizing their electrochemical properties for applications like electrochemical biosensing. Electrochemical (bio)sensors have been the driving force for researchers since long due to their robustness, miniaturization possibility, and simplicity in fabrication and usage. These are widely employed for number of applications like food quality, water quality, and point-of-care devices for biomedical domain. This chapter is intended to give an overview of the various group II–VI semiconductors, their functionalization methods, and newly explored electrochemical-based biosensing applications.
Mayank Garg, Arushi Gupta, Amit L. Sharma, Suman Singh
Chapter 22. Photoelectrochemical Biosensors
Abstract
Light is fundamental in many photochemical processes in biology and chemistry, and photo-induced processes such as charge generation/separation and charge transport/transfer can be exploited in areas such as analytical detection. In classical electrochemical sensors, the signal output is shown as a current, related to the concentration of the target (analyte). For photo-active electrodes, light radiation opens paths for signal amplification or even new reactions/detection. Among the advantages, light generation of charge carriers can: (i) interact directly with the analyte; (ii) interact with the analyte indirectly via a receptor, (iii) provide excited state intermediates that further generate a secondary analyte; or (iv) be used to amplify the sensor response. Light-activated biosensors have been reported in the literature for a wide range of analytes and as different complex architectures. In this sense, recent developments in photoelectrochemical biosensing methods based on Cd and Zn semiconductors materials will be summarised and discussed in the present chapter.
Sirlon F. Blaskievicz, Byanca S. Salvati, Alessandra Alves Correa, Lucia Helena Mascaro
Chapter 23. II–VI Semiconductor QDs in Surface Plasmon Resonance Sensors
Abstract
Surface plasmon resonance (SPR) sensors provide attractive performance in real-time gas sensing and biomolecular binding events. SPR is rapidly developing a label-free technique capable of measuring real-time quantitative binding affinities and kinetics for biological samples. The working principle section on electromagnetic theory describes the light-matter interaction at the metal-semiconductor interface. The SPR theory explained a short representation of the excitation of the surface plasmon and the constructions of an SPR sensor. The SPR biosensor sections demonstrate the plasmonic characteristics of semiconductor nanostructures and their performance in optics, fabrication, functionalisation and biosensing. The sensor limitation is described from an enhancement perspective. The gas sensing section describes some recent advances in SPR-based technology to detect the volatile molecules and the future potential of the SPR technique. Metal oxide semiconducting nanoparticles are also covered in the gas sensing section. Finally, functionalised semiconductor nanoparticles are summarised to introduce the biomolecular interactions in the SPR sensors. The use of semiconductor features in SPR will be promising for future environmental monitoring sensors, with many advantages for label-free sensing technologies in every aspect.
Hina F. Badgujar, Anuj K. Sharma
Chapter 24. Biomarkers and Bioimaging and Their Applications
Abstract
Biomarkers stand out to be an important material in today’s scenario of pandemic and health crisis all over the world. These materials need to be effectively utilised for health monitoring and detection of highly infectious pathogens. In this aspect, high-intensity luminescence exhibited by II–VI nanomaterials can be a suitable choice for medical imaging of infected cells and tissues. However, the level of toxicity posed by the release of Cd2+ ions with the usage of CdSe, CdS or CdTe nanostructures for aforesaid applications is one of the major concerns. In this review, we have thus discussed the feasibility of incorporating important methodologies and techniques for overcoming these issues. First, we have described the process of up-conversion and down-conversion of these nanophosphors required for high-quality imaging in the infrared range. Next, we have illustrated various surface modification, capping and conjugation methodologies of nanoparticles for assessing and reducing the level of toxicity towards the implementation in in vitro and in vivo imaging. The review thus brings forth advanced researches, challenges and the current status of the biomarkers and paves the direction towards new technologies for developing novel materials suitable for high-quality biomedical imaging.
Suchismita Ghosh, Kaustab Ghosh
Chapter 25. Biosensors Based on II–VI Semiconductor Quantum Dots for Health Protection
Abstract
The rapid advancements of biosensor technology have provided new opportunities for the development of new sensing approach, addressing challenges in health protection for the detection of various biological and chemical components such as bacterial pathogens, toxic materials, environmental pollutants, pesticides and allergens. Integration of sensing materials with semiconducting materials resulting highly sensitive in the sensors detection. This review presents the recent developments in lateral flow immunoassay, electrochemical, optical sensors and microfluidic-based sensors related to health protection monitoring. The principle for analyte detection such as simultaneous screening with multiplex approach, on-off probe-based chemiluminescence resonance energy transfer (CRET), fluorescence quenching, Forster resonance energy transfer (FRET), microfluidic system integrated with quantum dots has been discussed. This review concludes with the discussion of future trends and challenges in the application of sensors based on II–VI compounds for health protection monitoring.
Suria Mohd Saad, Jaafar Abdullah
Chapter 26. Application of II–VI Semiconductor-Based Biosensors in Nanomedicine and Bioanalysis
Abstract
The development of new and more efficient platforms for clinical diagnosis and bioanalysis, as well as the improvement of detection sensitivity, are constant goals in the sensing area. In the same context, the development of more efficient and less invasive approaches to medical therapy, drug administration and diagnosis is also a relevant issue. Semiconductor quantum dots (QDs) are a central topic within nanotechnology and have drawn the attention of many researchers in the last few years. These nanoparticles have been frequently explored in several areas such as physics, chemistry and engineering, among others. Furthermore, QDs have been widely used in biomedical applications for detection, therapy, drug delivery and diagnosis, demonstrating promising potential. This chapter will introduce the reader to some applications of QDs in nanomedicine and bioanalysis. Various approaches focused on medical therapy, clinical treatment, diagnosis and biosensing of important species will be explored and discussed. The focus here will be on nanomaterials formed by elements from groups II to VI.
Bruno Gabriel Lucca, Jacqueline Marques Petroni
Chapter 27. Specific Applications of II–VI Semiconductor Nanomaterials-Based Biosensors for Food Analysis and Food Safety
Abstract
II–VI semiconducting nanomaterials have been attracting a great deal of interests in sensors and biosensors development for decades owing to their excellent optical, catalytic, sensing and electrochemical properties, etc, especially for food analysis and food safety field in recent years. In this book chapter, we comprehensively introduce and analyze the recent progress of II–VI semiconducting nanomaterials in food analysis and food safety. More importantly, we discuss the application and analytical performance of different types of II–VI semiconducting nanomaterials like zinc sulfide (ZnS), cadmium selenide (CdSe), etc, in certain food matrix. In addition, challenges and limitations of such sensing platforms were commented for their versatile value. Ultimately, conclusion and future prospects were summarized.
Xiaodong Guo, Jiaqi Wang, Mengke Zhang, Marie-Laure Fauconnier
Backmatter
Metadata
Title
Handbook of II-VI Semiconductor-Based Sensors and Radiation Detectors
Editor
Ghenadii Korotcenkov
Copyright Year
2023
Electronic ISBN
978-3-031-24000-3
Print ISBN
978-3-031-23999-1
DOI
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-24000-3

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