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2017 | Book

Handbook of Industrial Chemistry and Biotechnology

Editors: Dr. James A. Kent, Dr. Tilak V. Bommaraju, Prof. Dr. Scott D. Barnicki

Publisher: Springer International Publishing

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About this book

This widely respected and frequently consulted reference work provides a wealth of information and guidance on industrial chemistry and biotechnology. Industries covered span the spectrum from salt and soda ash to advanced dyes chemistry, the nuclear industry, the rapidly evolving biotechnology industry, and, most recently, electrochemical energy storage devices and fuel cell science and technology.
Other topics of surpassing interest to the world at large are covered in chapters on fertilizers and food production, pesticide manufacture and use, and the principles of sustainable chemical practice, referred to as green chemistry.
Finally, considerable space and attention in the Handbook are devoted to the subjects of safety and emergency preparedness.
It is worth noting that virtually all of the chapters are written by individuals who are embedded in the industries whereof they write so knowledgeably.

Table of Contents

Frontmatter
What Is Industrial Chemistry

Industrial chemistry is the manufacturing art concerned with the transformation of matter into useful materials in useful amounts. Usually this transformation of available materials into more desirable ones involves some kind of process following a recipe. In turn the process may involve grinding, mixing together various ingredients, dissolving, heating, allowing ingredients to interact (chemically or biochemically react forming new compositions of matter), cooling, evaporating or distilling, growing crystals, filtering, and other physical-chemical-biological operations.

J. J. Siirola

Raw Materials for the Chemical Process Industries

Frontmatter
Petroleum and Its Products

Petroleum makes the world go around. In the realm of global economics and politics, that statement is hard to dispute. Petroleum is uniquely versatile. When wisely handled, it is safe and clean compared to most alternatives. It is still abundant, and it can be stored for years at a time simply by leaving it in the ground. Under ambient conditions, it is a liquid and relatively noncompressible, so it can be carried across oceans in large tankers or pumped through pipelines hundreds of miles long. Its distilled products have high energy densities. Fifteen gallons of gasoline can move a 3300-pound automobile across 350 flat miles at 65 miles per hour. (In metric units, those values are 57 L, 1480 kg, 565 km, and 105 kph.) We transform petroleum into thousands of useful substances: fuels, lubricants, and chemicals with exceedingly different properties—from baby oil to pesticides, from adhesives to laxatives, from artificial sweeteners to sulfuric acid.

Paul R. Robinson, Chang Samuel Hsu
Coal Technology for Power, Liquid Fuels, and Chemicals

The United States contains about 23% of the world’s coal reserves, with Russia, China, Australia, and India each having more than 5% of the reserves. Coal represents over 90% of US proven reserves of fossil fuels. Recoverable reserves of US coal are estimated to be 227 Gt (billion tons; all numbers quoted are in metric tons). Bituminous coals (with a heating value of 23.26–34.89 MJ/kg) comprise nearly one-half of total US coal reserves. Eastern US coals are generally bituminous. Western and southwestern US coals are mainly subbituminous (with a heating value of 20.93–27.91 MJ/kg) and lignite (with a heating value of 18.61–23.26 MJ/kg). Coal is a major source of energy for electric power production and process heat and can serve as a source of synthetic fuels and feedstock for the petrochemical industry.

Burtron H. Davis, James C. Hower
Natural Gas

Natural gas is a naturally occurring mixture of simple hydrocarbons and nonhydrocarbons that exists as a gas at ordinary pressures and temperatures. In the raw state, as produced from the earth, natural gas consists principally of methane (CH4) and ethane (C2H4), with fractional amounts of propane (C3H8), butane (C4H10), and other hydrocarbons, pentane (C5H12) and heavier. Occasionally, small traces of light aromatic hydrocarbons, such as benzene and toluene, may also be present.

Arland H. Johannes, Mahmood Moshfeghian, Tyler W. Johannes
Wood and Wood Products

This chapter highlights the physical and chemical nature of wood as well as its utilizations including the solid wood and fiber products. The hydrothermal pretreatment especially for the hot-water extraction represents a key process for improving the uses of all wood polymers (cellulose, hemicelluloses, and lignin). Extractives from the wood and barks are important sources for many useful chemicals. Also, the sycamore tree leaves could be used as a substrate for making the particle board. Thus, all the whole tree components contribute to the Forest-Based Biorefinery.

Yuan-Zong Lai
Biomass Conversion

Biomass constitutes all the plant matter found on our planet, and is produced directly by photosynthesis, the fundamental engine of life on earth. It is the photosynthetic capability of plants to utilize carbon dioxide from the atmosphere that leads to its designation as a “carbon neutral” fuel, meaning that it does not introduce new carbon into the atmosphere. This article discusses the life cycle assessments of biomass use and the magnitude of energy captured by photosynthesis in the form of biomass on the planet to appraise approaches to tap this energy to meet the ever-growing demand for energy.

Stephen R. Decker, John Sheehan, David C. Dayton, Joseph J. Bozell, William S. Adney, Andy Aden, Bonnie Hames, Steven R. Thomas, Richard L. Bain, Roman Brunecky, Chien-Yuan Lin, Antonella Amore, Hui Wei, Xiaowen Chen, Melvin P. Tucker, Stefan Czernik, Amie Sluiter, Min Zhang, Kim Magrini, Michael E. Himmel

Industrial Organic Chemistry

Frontmatter
Synthetic Organic Chemicals

Synthetic organic chemicals are produced by the transformation of carbonaceous feedstocks into functionalized molecules through one or more chemical reactions. Such transformations are accomplished at vast industrial scales and the resulting products permeate every aspect of modern society. The molecules produced find use largely as monomers for polymer synthesis of ubiquitous plastics, or as task-specific ingredients for a myriad of applications as divergent as paint leveling agents to food preservatives. Advances in technology, significant increases in energy efficiency, as well as the utilization of fossil fuel-derived starting materials have resulted in unprecedented economy of scale and relatively stable product costs in spite of large relative increases in the price of oil and natural gas. The section entitled “Chemical Raw Materials and Feedstocks” covers the most important carbonaceous feedstocks currently utilized in the chemical processing industries, all derived from fossil fuel-based raw materials.

Scott D. Barnicki
Chemistry in the Pharmaceutical Industry

This chapter discusses the role of chemistry within the pharmaceutical industry. Although the focus is upon the industry within the United States, much of the discussion is equally relevant to pharmaceutical companies based in other nations, for example Japan and those in Europe. The primary objective of the pharmaceutical industry is the discovery, development, and marketing of safe and efficacious drugs for the treatment of human disease. However, drug companies must earn profits in order to remain viable and finance the essential research and development that leads to new drugs designed to address unmet medical need. Thus, there exists a tension between the dual goals of enhancing the quality and duration of human life and increasing stockholder or private investor equity. The chapter provides an overview of the processes and activities involved in drug discovery and development with an emphasis on the role of chemists. Examples of marketed drugs are provided and are organized by the major disease areas. Several important drug discovery strategies and technologies that may be employed when applicable are briefly summarized. A section on process chemistry provides an overview of the topic and then describes some recent actual examples. Despite the considerable benefits provided by therapeutic agents discovered to date, there remains considerable unmet medical need in many disease areas. Pharmaceutical research will continue to be challenging but it is anticipated that creative medicinal, analytical, and process chemists will be needed at the forefront to enable the future discovery of new medicines and to bring improvements to the overall effectiveness of the field.

John F. Kadow, Nicholas A. Meanwell, Kyle J. Eastman, Kap-Sun Yeung, Albert J. DelMonte
Manufacture of Dye Intermediates, Dyes, and Their Industrial Applications

Synthesis of industrially important dye intermediates and dyes is presented. Industrial applications of dyes including textiles and non-textiles such as acid-base indicators, liquid crystal, color filters for displays and sensors, ink-jet, lasers, photographic, hairs, food, and biomedical are discussed.

R. W. Sabnis
The Chemistry of Structural Adhesives: Epoxy, Urethane, and Acrylic Adhesives

Adhesives have been used successfully in a variety of applications for centuries. Today, adhesives are more important than ever in our daily lives, and their usefulness is increasing rapidly. In the past few decades, there have been significant advances in materials and in bonding technology. People now routinely trust their fortunes and their lives to adhesively bonded structures and rarely think about it.

Kirk J. Abbey, Denis J. Zalucha
The Agrochemical Industry

Agrochemical industry is a very vast field and deals with production and distribution of pesticides and fertilizers to increase the crop yields. Pesticides also find utility for animal and public health, as disinfectant, for home cares etc. This chapter is an attempt to provide a glance into role of pesticides, their classification based on: application, mode of entry, mode of action, chemical class and toxicity. It briefly touches upon the chemistry of pesticides. It also describes characteristics of main types of pesticide formulations and role of adjuvants in the formulation. There is a small note on the challenges faced by Agrochemical Industry and the future trends in this field.Fertilizers and fundamental nutrients are arbitrarily excluded from discussion in this chapter. A special mention is provided in the chapter on the products introduced in the market in recent past and becoming off patent post 2015 to help the readers to identify and develop generic active ingredients to meet the global demand for food, feed, fibre and energy as well as to maintain general hygiene of homes.

K. N. Singh, Kavita Merchant
Fertilizers and Food Production

Historically, other than the domestication of plants and animals, no agricultural innovation has increased food production capability more than manufactured fertilizers. Fertilizers provide plants with the nutrients they need for their growth and development. Of the 17 nutrients essential for plant growth, nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P), and potassium (K) are most likely to be deficient and needed in the largest quantities. In addition, plants also need other nutrients in much smaller amounts, and they are referred to as secondary (calcium, magnesium, and sulfur) and micronutrients (boron, chlorine, copper, iron, manganese, molybdenum, and zinc). Since the 1970s, the global fertilizer (NPK) consumption increased from less than 50 million metric tons (mt) in 1970 to about 190 million mt in 2013. During this period, global cereal production has nearly doubled, increasing from 1400 million metric tons (mt) in 1970 to over 2600 million mt in 2013.The United Nations projects that, by 2050, the world will have 2.4 billion more inhabitants from the current level of 7.2 billion. Given the dietary changes, 70% more food needs to be produced. This increase must be achieved under land and water constraints and climate change. Fertilizer will be one of the keys to achieving these targets. However once-impressive responses to fertilizer application to staple crops are tapering off due to several factors including insufficient secondary and micronutrients in soils.The N and P fertilizer products, available in various formulations, have not changed much since they were developed in the 1960s and 1970s. To meet the future challenge of producing nutritious food for the expanding population, new, economically viable fertilizers are needed with nutrient-release properties matching plants’ requirements.

Amit H. Roy
Pigments, Paints, Polymer Coatings, Lacquers, and Printing Inks

Paints and coatings are used in a wide variety of diverse applications with the industry typically segregated into architectural, OEM products, and special purpose markets. The paint and coatings industry continues to rebound following the downturn in 2008. Mergers, acquisitions, and divestitures continue to dominate the industry and environmental regulations continue to be a driver of technology. Markets for powder coatings and UV/EB coatings continue their robust growth. New coatings technologies continue to be explored with a growing interest in bio-based resin systems derived from plant sources. Printing inks are applied through a number of different processes on a broad variety of substrates, each having their own requirements. Pigments are important components of paints, coatings, and printing inks.

Dean C. Webster, Rose A. Ryntz
Animal and Vegetable Fats, Oils, and Waxes

Biotechnology has been defined by various groups and broadly includes technologies that utilize living organisms or parts of biological systems. The nurture of man and animals, and provision of replenishable industrial materials, typically includes: (1) growing selected species or their genetic modifications; (2) harvest, preprocess storage, conversion into useful products, and protection until use; and (3) utilization or disposal of by-products and wastes in the most beneficial or least-cost manner. Specific actions may be taken to suppress residual enzymes and contaminating microorganisms that could degrade product value. Also, remediation (restoration) of air and water used in processing to near-pristine condition often is mandated today.

Edmund W. Lusas, M. N. Riaz, M. S. Alam, R. Clough
Sugar and Other Sweeteners

Sugar and starch are among the most abundant plant products available, and large industries exist worldwide to extract and process them from agricultural sources. The world production of sugar (sucrose from sugarcane and sugar beet) in 2015/2016 was approximately 176 million metric tons, raw value, with 19.6% being beet sugar and 80.4% cane sugar (Supplement to A first look at the 2016-17 sugar balance, 38, 2016). The total production of world sugar has risen dramatically since 1971/1972, when it was 71.7 million tons (FO Licht GmbH, World beet and cane sugar production, 14–15, 2004). The proportion of beet sugar to cane sugar has fallen steadily since about 1971, when it constituted 42.8% of total sugar production (FO Licht GmbH, World production, consumption and stocks of centrifugal sugar 1952–2000, 12–13, 2001). In 2015/2016, 37% (66.0 million metric tons) of world sugar production was exported, with Brazil being the largest exporter (Supplement to A first look at the 2016-17 sugar balance, 38, 2016). China was the largest importer in 2015/2016 followed closely by Indonesia, the European Union, then the USA (Supplement to A first look at the 2016-17 sugar balance, 38, 2016). Although, in some developed countries, there is currently an unhealthy perception of sugar with associated campaigns to reduce sugar calories in foods, world sugar consumption continues to climb. World sugar consumption was 182 million metric tons, raw value in 2015/2016, due mostly to Asia, Africa, and North and Central America (Supplement to A first look at the 2016-17 sugar balance, 38, 2016). Per capita consumption of sugar in 2015/2016 was greatest in South America (51.3 kg, raw value) and lowest in Africa (17.8 kg, raw value).

Gillian Eggleston, Benjamin Legendre, Mary An Godshall
Soap, Fatty Acids, and Synthetic Detergents

The origin of the word “soap” is traced to sacrificial Mount Sapo of ancient Roman legend. The mixture of fat and wood ashes that reacted to form soap was carried by rain to the banks of the Tiber River and was found as a clay deposit useful for cleaning clothes [1]. The chemistry (reactions, raw materials, and functional properties) of bar soaps as well as the manufacturing technology (processes and equipment) are reviewed. In addition, synthetic detergents (raw materials, types of surfactants, additives, production processes, consumption, and detergent trending) are examined.

Janine Chupa, Steve Misner, Amit Sachdev, Peter Wisniewski, George A. Smith, Robert Heffner
Chemical Explosives

While the field of commercial explosives appears on the surface to be relatively mature, there continue to be notable innovations in formulations, manufacturing and delivery systems in order to meet challenging economic, environmental and regulatory demands.

D. Lynn Gordon, Jordan L. Arthur, Verlene Lovell, Lee F. McKenzie
The Nuclear Industry

The objective of the nuclear industry is to produce energy in the forms of heat from either fission reactions or radioactive decay and radiation from radioactive decay or by accelerator methods. For fission heat applications, the nuclear fuel has a very high specific energy content that currently has two principal uses, for military explosives and for electricity generation, mainly in light water reactors (LWRs) operating between 250 and 350 °C. While higher-temperature reactors, mainly high-temperature gas and sodium reactors have been available for over 60 years, they have been shown to not be economically competitive with LWRs. For radiation applications, the emissions from radioactive decay of unstable nuclides are employed in research, medicine, and industry for diagnostic and measurement purposes. Radioactive decay heat is also employed to generate electricity from thermoelectric generators for low-power applications in space or remote terrestrial locations. Radiation produced from accelerator-based sources is used for geologic investigation (e.g., identifying oil deposits), materials modification, and contrast imaging of dense media (e.g., security inspections in commercial shipping). Fuel from the first atomic pile is shown in Fig. 1.

Edward Lahoda, Keith Task

Industrial Inorganic Chemistry

Frontmatter
Synthetic Nitrogen Products

Nitrogen products are among the most important chemicals produced in the world today. The largest quantities are used as fertilizers, but nitrogen products also find very important uses in the manufacture of nylon and acrylic fibers, methacrylate and other plastics, foamed insulation and plastics, metal plating, gold mining, animal feed supplements, and herbicides.

Gary R. Maxwell
Phosphorus and Phosphates

Phosphate rock extraction from its ore, and its subsequent conversion into fertilizer materials and industrial chemicals, is a relatively mature art. While production of phosphoric acid from sedimentary phosphate rock via the “wet process” dominates the industry, the geology and mineralogy of source rock varies, and many processing choices are available. Changing global economics, social and environmental pressures affect modern market conditions. This chapter discusses phosphate mineralogy, deposits, mining, beneficiation, production, value, chemical processing technologies, products, by-products, and environmental factors.

Brian K. Birky
Sulfur and Sulfuric Acid

Sulfur is one of the few elements that is found in its elemental form in nature. Typical sulfur deposits occur in sedimentary limestone/gypsum formations, in limestone/anhydrite formations associated with salt domes, or in volcanic rock [1]. A yellow solid at room temperature, sulfur becomes progressively lighter in color at lower temperatures and is almost white at the temperature of liquid air. It melts at 114–119 °C (depending on crystalline form) to a yellow liquid which turns orange as the temperature is increased. The low viscosity of the liquid begins to rise sharply above 160 °C, peaking at 93 Pas at 188 °C, and then falling as the temperature continues to rise to its boiling point of 445 °C. This and other anomalous properties of the liquid state are due to equilibria between the various molecular species of sulfur, which includes small chains and rings.

Lori E. Apodaca, Gerard E. d’Aquin, Robert C. Fell
Salt, Chlor-Alkali, and Related Heavy Chemicals

Sodium chloride itself has thousands of uses. It is also the base for many high-volume chemicals. Commercially, the most important of these are chlorine and its coproduct alkalis. Salt is a raw material in the production of synthetic soda ash and, by extension, bicarbonate and a broad range of silicates. Derivative products in clude hydrochloric acid, chiefly a byproduct, and a number of sulfur compounds. Sodium chlorate and its derivatives are other products of the electrolysis of salt. The characteristic applications of chlorine and some other products are in bleaching and disinfection. This chapter reviews production, processing, and application of all materials.

Thomas F. O’Brien
Industrial Gases

Industrial gases may actually be used as gases, liquids, or cryogenic liquids. Industrial users generally accept them as those gases used primarily in their pure form in large quantities. Most of the gases we consider to be industrial gases have been in use for many years. Processes for the cryogenic separation of the air gases were developed as early as 1895, with commercial production of oxygen beginning in 1902. Nitrous oxide was used as an anesthetic as early as 1799. Carbon dioxide had been identified as a specific substance by 1608. Methane has been used as an energy source since the 1700s. Other gaseous compounds commonly used today for specific manufacturing processes (e.g., electronics/semiconductors, plastics) are discussed in other chapters of this Handbook related to those processes.

Steven J. Cooke

Polymer Chemistry

Frontmatter
Manufactured Textile Fibers

This chapter reviews the details of the manufacture of most of the major types of man-made fibers that have gone well beyond the research and development stage and have found a niche market, and the factors that contribute to the appreciation and understanding of the nomenclature, the history of the use of textiles, and the consumption trends of different types of fibers. Also addressed in this chapter are three general sections of interest. These include: methods by which the man-made fibers are produced in unusually fine, i.e., micro or nano, sizes, practical ways by which the important chemical and physical properties are commonly varied in fibers, and details of the use of fibers and textiles in medicine—a novel and increasingly popular and successful application.

Bhupender S. Gupta
Synthetic Resins and Plastics

Plastic (adj.) is defined by Webster [1] as “capable of being molded or modeled (e.g., clay) … capable of being deformed continu-ously and permanently in any direction with-out rupture.” Plastic (n.) is a plastic substance, specifically, any of numerous organic synthetic or processed materials that are mostly thermoplastic or thermosetting polymers of high molecular weight and that can be made into objects, films, or filaments.

Margaret Sobkowicz-Kline, Bridgette M. Budhlall, Joey L. Mead
Rubber

The word “rubber” immediately brings to mind materials that are highly flexible and will snap back to their original shape after being stretched. In this chapter, a variety of materials are discussed that possess these odd characteristics. There will also be a discussion on the mechanism of this “elastic retractive force.” Originally, rubber meant the gum collected from a tree growing in Brazil. The term “rubber” was coined for this material by the English chemist Joseph Priestley, who noted that it was effective for removing pencil marks from paper. Today, in addition to Priestley’s natural product, many synthetic materials are made that possess these characteristics and many other properties. The common features of these materials are that they are made up of long-chain molecules that are amorphous (not crystalline), and the chains are above their glass transition temperature at room temperature.

M. Rackaitis, D. F. Graves

Biochemistry

Frontmatter
Industrial Biotechnology: Discovery to Delivery

Bioprocessing technologies have been evolving over the past several decades with fermentation products finding applications in almost every aspect of our daily lives. They are used in ethical and generic drugs, clinical and home diagnostics, defense products, nutritional supplements, personal care products, food and animal feed ingredients, cleaning and textile processing, and industrial applications such as fuel ethanol production. Even before knowing about the existence of microorganisms, for thousands of years ancient people routinely used them for making cheese, yogurt, soy sauces, and bread. Despite its long historical use as the method of choice for manufacturing, it is only in the recent time that fermentation has been recognized for its vast potential toward sustainable industrial development.

Gopal K. Chotani, Timothy C. Dodge, Caroline M. Peres, Peyman Moslemy, Michael V. Arbige
Industrial Enzymes and Biocatalysis

All life processes, whether plant, animal, or microbial, depend upon a complex network of enzyme-catalyzed chemical reactions for cellular growth and maintenance [1–3]. As protein-based catalysts, enzymes facilitate reactions by enabling alternate reaction mechanisms with lower overall activation energy, without modifying the thermodynamic equilibrium constant or the free energy change of a chemical transformation. They generate enormous kinetic rate accelerations, often exceeding factors of 1012-fold relative to the rate of the uncatalyzed reaction. Enzymes are capable of performing many different chemistries, can be produced on a large scale, and typically operate at ambient temperatures and near neutral pH [4, 5]. These properties have captured the attention of generations of scientists and engineers over the past century and enabled the practical use of enzymes as industrial catalysts. Enzymes are now used extensively across a wide range of applications as demand for environmentally sustainable processes increases in a number of industries [6–9].

Adam L. Garske, Gregory Kapp, Joseph C. McAuliffe
Industrial Production of Therapeutic Proteins: Cell Lines, Cell Culture, and Purification

A central pillar of the biotechnology and pharmaceutical industries continues to be the development of biological drug products manufactured from engineered mammalian cell lines. Since the hugely successful launch of human tissue plasminogen activator in 1987 and erythropoietin in 1988, the biopharmaceutical market has grown immensely. In 2014, biotherapeutics made up a significant portion of global drug sales as 7 of the top 10 and 21 of top 50 selling pharmaceuticals in the world were biologics with over US$100 billion in global sales (Table 1, [1]).

Marie M. Zhu, Michael Mollet, Rene S. Hubert, Yun Seung Kyung, Green G. Zhang

Emerging Fields of Industrial Chemistry

Frontmatter
Nanoparticles: From Fundamentals to Applications

Research in the area of nanotechnology has seen an explosive growth during the past two decades, spurred by significant investments in basic research and leading to the development of a variety of consumer-based products. As of August 2015, an inventory conducted by the Project on Emerging Nanotechnologies has identified over 1800 nanotechnology-based consumer products (http://www.nanotechproject.org/inventories/consumer; 2015). A technical report published recently estimates the global market value for nanotechnology to be $27 billion in 2015 (http://www.bccresearch.com/market-research/nanotechnology/nanotechnology-market-assessment-report-nan031f.html; 2015). A significant portion of this market share is due to nanomaterials with contributions of nearly $ 20 billion. This suggests that significant progress has been made towards commercialization of nanomaterials. In this chapter, we will explore the myriad examples of nanomaterials developed and utilized for various applications.

Ranjit T. Koodali
Electrochemical Energy Storage: Current and Emerging Technologies

This chapter includes theory based and practical discussions of electrochemical energy storage systems including batteries (primary, secondary and flow) and supercapacitors. Primary batteries are exemplified by zinc-air, lithium-air and lithium thionyl chloride batteries. Secondary batteries are exemplified by recombination, lithium ion and high temperature batteries. The state-of-the-art in supercapacitors and pseudo capacitors are discussed. The chapter concludes with battery and capacitor emerging technologies. This chapter is suitable as a reference for professionals and for classroom education.

Neili Loupe, Jonathan Doan, Bogdan Gurau, Eugene S. Smotkin
Electrochemical Energy Production Using Fuel Cell Technologies

Fuel cells are highly efficient and environmentally friendly energy conversion devices that are receiving increasing attention and are steadily moving toward commercialization. Fuel cells deliver electricity and heat, based on the spontaneous electrochemical oxidation of fuels at the anode and the reduction of oxygen at the cathode, without combustion. In many ways, fuel cells are similar to batteries, although they do not require recharging and operate as long as fuel continues to be provided. There are four leading types of fuels reviewed in this chapter, proton exchange membrane fuel cells (PEMFCs) operating on clean hydrogen, direct alcohol (primarily methanol) fuel cells (DAFCs), solid oxide fuel cells (SOFCs), and molten carbonate fuel cells (MCFCs). PEMFCs and DAFCs normally operate at below 100 °C and are targeted primarily for transportation and mobile applications, while SOFCs and MCFCs, which run at temperatures above 600 °C, can run on a wide variety of fuels and are intended mostly for stationary combined heat and power applications. This review is focused primarily on a description of each of these technologies, with an emphasis on the materials used in the electrodes, the electrolyte that separates them, and the current collectors.

Viola Birss, Ehab El Sawy, Sanaz Ketabi, Parastoo Keyvanfar, Xiaoan Li, Jason Young
CO2 Utilization

Global warming resulting from the emission of greenhouse gases has received widespread environment and energy attention in the recent years. Among these greenhouse gases, CO2 contributes over 60% to global warming due to its huge emission amount over 30 Gt CO2 a year. Global CO2 concentrations just passed 400 ppm in March 2015, which is significantly higher than the preindustrial level of about 300 ppm. To mitigate global warming, the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) was open for signature of the treaty with the goal of “preventing dangerous anthropogenic interference with Earth’s climate system” and the principle of “common but differentiated responsibilities.” The parties to UNFCCC have met annually from 1995 in Conferences of the Parties (COPs) to assess progress in achieving the treaty’s aims. In 1997, the Kyoto Protocol was declared and bound under international law, which urged 37 industrialized nations and European Union to reduce their greenhouse gas emissions to a level of 5.2% on average lower than those of 1990 during the period of 2008–2012. However, the reduction targets are not achieved and the Kyoto Protocol is therefore extended to 2020. The Copenhagen Accord in 2009 also requests the global temperature increase be limited to 2°C above the preindustrial level by 2100. In 2015, the Paris Agreement was proposed in COP21, aiming at limiting global warming to less than 2°C and pursuing efforts to limit the rise to 1.5°C. In addition, the experts will review the nationally determined contributions (NDCs) proposed by all parties and ask the developed countries to assist the developing countries by supporting of funding and technologies, if the Paris Agreement will be effective in 2018.

Chih-Hung Huang, Duy the Phan, Chung-Sung Tan

Industrial Processing and Engineering

Frontmatter
Safety Considerations in the Chemical Process Industries

The chemical industry is one of the safest industries, but its safety record in the eyes of the public has suffered. Perhaps this is because sometimes when there is an accident in a chemical plant it is spectacular and receives a great deal of attention. The public often associates the chemical industry with environmental and safety problems, which results in a negative image of the industry.Process safety is important because good process safety performance, the lack of major process safety incidents, allows a company the freedom to manage its business without the interference of government regulators, litigation, and adverse public opinion. By avoiding injuries to people, major property loss, and business interruption loss, process safety results in the creation of positive business value for a company. The actions that are required to manage process safety well are the same actions required to manage business well.Occupational Safety Versus Process SafetyIt is important to differentiate between occupational safety which involves accident prevention through work systems which are aimed at minimizing the risk of injury to workers and process safety which involves the prevention and mitigation of fires, explosions, and accidental chemical releases that can have far-reaching impacts. Occupational safety focuses on the prevention of worker injuries and occupational illness, primarily relating to trips, slips, falls, cuts, burns etc. These injuries result from the failures in the control of traditional work procedures. Process safety focuses on the prevention of leaks, spills, process upsets, toxic releases, and equipment failures which may or may not injure or result in fatalities to workers or others at or near the site. This chapter deals primarily with process safety.Process Safety Technology IssuesThe Internet provides considerable information on incidents, good industry practice, and design guidelines. The best practices in industry are briefly discussed in this chapter. Details are readily available from resources listed in the references section at the end of the chapter. Hazards from combustion and runaway reactions play a leading role in many chemical process accidents. Knowledge of these reactions is essential for the control of process hazards. Much of the damage and loss of life in chemical accidents are caused by a loss of containment that results in a sudden release of hazardous material at high pressures, which may or may not result in fire; so it is important to understand how loss of containment and sudden pressure releases can occur. Loss of containment can be due, for example, to ruptured high pressure tanks, runaway reactions, flammable vapor clouds, or pressure developed from external fire. Fires can cause severe damage to people and property from thermal radiation. Chemical releases from fires and pressure releases can form toxic clouds that can be dangerous to people over large areas. Static electricity often is a hidden cause of accidents. It is very important to understand the reactive nature of the chemicals involved in a chemical facility.Process Safety Management IssuesChemical process safety involves both the technical and the management aspects of the chemical industry, and this chapter addresses both. It is not enough to be aware of how to predict the effect of process hazards and how to design systems to reduce the risks of these hazards. It also is important to consider how chemical process safety can be managed. Technical and management people at all levels in an organization have process safety management responsibility and can contribute to the overall management of safer chemical processing plants.Loss of containment due to mechanical failure or misoperation is a major cause of chemical process accidents. The publication One hundred largest losses: a thirty year review of property damage losses in the hydrocarbon-chemical industry (M&M Protection Consultants, 12th edn, Riverside Plaza, Chicago, 1998) cites loss of containment as the leading cause of property loss in the chemical process industries.It has become clear that process safety can be and must be managed as any other part of the business. A process safety management system is focused on preparedness for the prevention and mitigation of catastrophic releases of chemicals or energy from a process associated with a facility. It also includes the response to and restoration from these events. The term process safety management was first recognized on a broad scale in the late 1980s after Bhopal (see case histories). It formed the basis for many of the American Institute of Chemical Engineers’ Center for Chemical Process Safety’s guideline books and eventually led to US regulations (OSHA PSM) in 1992.

John F. Murphy
Applied Statistical Methods and the Chemical Industry

The discipline of statistics is the study of effective methods of data collection, data summarization, and (data based, quantitative) inference making in a framework that explicitly recognizes the reality of nonnegligible variation in real-world processes and measurements. The ultimate goal of the field is to provide tools for extracting the maximum amount of useful information about a noisy physical process from a given investment of data collection and analysis resources. The primary purposes of this chapter are to indicate in concrete terms the nature of some existing methods of applied statistics that are particularly appropriate to industrial chemistry, and to provide an entry into the statistical literature for those readers who find in the discussion here reasons to believe that statistical tools can help them be effective in their work.

Stephen Vardeman, Robert Kasprzyk
Green Engineering: Integration of Green Chemistry, Pollution Prevention, Risk-Based Considerations, and Life Cycle Analysis

Green Chemistry refers to the study of the general methodology for synthesis of chemicals in a benign and environmentally safe manner. Similarly Green Engineering refers application of green chemistry on an industrial scale with the goal of designing processes which minimizes the waste and pollution. The practice of green engineering requires the integration of green chemistry concepts and a systematic use of pollution prevention heuristics in design and operation together with risk assessment tools and life cycle analysis tools. The intent of this chapter is to familiarize the readers with the integration of these tools and spell out the approaches one need to use for green engineering of new processes as well as improving the environmental risks of existing processes.The Chapter is divided into five major sections: Green chemistry and engineering principles, Pollution prevention heuristics to be used in design, Environmental performance assessment, and Life cycle assessment of processes, and Prediction of environmental fate of chemicals released into the environment. A number of examples of integration of green chemistry and engineering are provided and examples of including life cycle assessment at early design stage are shown. The information provided will be useful for practitioners to design and operate environmentally benign chemical processes.

Palghat A. Ramachandran, David Shonnard, Robert Hesketh, Daniel Fichana, C. Stewart Slater, Angela Lindner, Nhan Nguyen, Richard Engler
Industrial Catalysis: A Practical Guide

Every college student of chemistry, material science, and chemical engineering should be schooled in catalysis and catalytic reactions. The reason is quite simple; most products produced in the chemical and petroleum industries utilize catalysts to enhance the rate of reaction and selectivity to desired products. Catalysts are also extensively used to minimize the harmful byproduct pollutants in environmental applications. Enhanced reaction rates translate to higher production volumes at lower temperatures with smaller reactors and less exotic materials of construction necessary. When a highly selective catalyst is used, large volumes of desired products are produced with virtually no undesirable byproducts. Gasoline, diesel, home heating oil, and aviation fuels owe their performance quality to catalytic processing used to upgrade crude oil. Intermediate chemicals in the production of pharmaceutical products utilize catalysts as well as the food industry in the production of every day edible products. Catalysts are playing a key role in developing new sources of energy and a variety of approaches in mitigating climate change and CO2 upgrading.This review describes the fundamentals of catalytic processes including the basic principles of catalysts and catalytic processes, general kinetics, selectivity, preparation, deactivation and characterization of catalysts. The application section describes petroleum processing, pollution abatement from vehicle exhausts, hydrogenation of vegetable oils for edible products, hydrogen generation technologies need in the production of ammonia, nitric acid production, pure hydrogen generation, low-temperature (PEM) fuel cells, homogeneous catalysis, and production of polyethylene and polypropylene polymers. Selected references are included for more in-depth study.

Robert J. Farrauto
Dividing Wall Columns in the Chemical Industry

The intent of this chapter is to provide a detailed summary of publicly disclosed dividing wall columns (DWCs) within the chemical industry. The chapter will initially provide a brief overview of the basic types of DWCs and intensified DWCs. Then it will move into a more detailed description of the industrial practitioners and providers of DWC technology within the chemical industry. The ultimate goal of this chapter is to encourage others to begin evaluating and eventually implementing this energy and capital-saving technology.

Craig A. Hoyme
Process Control in the Chemical Industry

This chapter on process control in the chemical industry addresses the concepts and terminology that are needed to work in the field of process control. The material is presented in a straight forward manner that is independent of the control system manufacturer. In this chapter it is assumed the reader may not have worked in a process plant environment and may be unfamiliar with control systems. Thus, this chapter may serve as a guide for engineers that are just starting to work in this field. Much of the material on the practical aspects of control design and process applications is typically not included in process control classes taught at the university level. As control techniques are introduced, simple process examples are used to illustrate how these techniques are applied in industry. After covering the traditional techniques that are most often used in industry, a brief introduction is provided on advanced control techniques. Thus, whether the reader of this book is working as a process control engineer, working in a control group or working in an instrument department, the information will set a solid foundation needed to understand and work with existing control systems or to design new control applications.

Terry Blevins, James J. Downs
Industrial Chemistry of Steel

This chapter on the Industrial Chemistry of Steel is a general overview of steel, its manufacturing and usage. A significant amount of the material in this chapter is presented in a tabular form and/or pie charts for the sake of brevity and clarity. There are several publications (Coudurier et al., Fundamentals of metallurgical processes; SIms, Electric furnace steelmaking, vol II: theory and fundamentals; Lankford et al., The making, shaping and treating of steel, United States steel; Gaines, BOF steel making, vol 1, introduction, theory and design Part 1; Clark and Varney, Physical metallurgy for engineers), monographs and brochures in the open literature covering almost all aspects of steel manufacturing. The interested reader is referred to that published literature for an in-depth understanding of the technology and further details.

Rama Bommaraju
Managing an Emergency Preparedness Program

The preceding chapter explored many technical aspects of chemical process safety and some safety management systems that form the foundation of a comprehensive emergency preparedness program. Clearly, the first step in preparing for emergencies is to identify and mitigate the conditions that might cause them. This process starts early in the design phase of a chemical facility, and continues throughout its life. The objective is to prevent emergencies by eliminating hazards wherever possible.

Everette M. Spore, Thaddeus H. Spencer, James W. Bowman
Environmental Chemical Determinations

Environmental chemical determinations are identifications and measurements of the concentrations of elements, compounds, or ions in environmental media. In a chemical determination, equal importance is given to the correct identification of the substance and to its accurate and precise measurement. There has been a tendency in some environmental work to place more emphasis on making accurate and precise measurements and to give less attention to ascertaining the correctness of the identification of the substance being measured.

William L. Budde
Backmatter
Metadata
Title
Handbook of Industrial Chemistry and Biotechnology
Editors
Dr. James A. Kent
Dr. Tilak V. Bommaraju
Prof. Dr. Scott D. Barnicki
Copyright Year
2017
Electronic ISBN
978-3-319-52287-6
Print ISBN
978-3-319-52285-2
DOI
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-52287-6