Introduction to Electromobility
Technology, Best Practice, Energy and Environment
- 2024
- Book
- Author
- Martin Doppelbauer
- Publisher
- Springer Fachmedien Wiesbaden
About this book
The book provides a comprehensive overview of all relevant technical and environmental aspects relating to road vehicles with low-emission drive technology. The focus is on electric and hybrid vehicles, whose drive technology, energy storage (batteries, hydrogen) and charging systems are presented in detail.
It also deals with overarching framework conditions such as climate protection, generation and distribution of electrical energy and hydrogen, raw materials, life cycle assessment and costs. The latest technical developments have been taken into account in this updated edition. The facts are made clear in many breakdown graphics. Examples deepen the material or provide a practical reference so that the content is more memorable for students.
This book is aimed, among others, at students from the subjects of automotive technology, energy technology, electrical engineering, energy supply, energy economics, mechanical engineering and industrial engineering.
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Table of Contents
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Frontmatter
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Chapter 1. Introduction
Martin DoppelbauerThe chapter begins with the invention of the electric battery by Alessandro Volta in 1800, which enabled systematic research into electrical and magnetic phenomena. Michael Faraday's demonstration of electromagnetic rotation in 1821 and Christian Oersted's discovery of electromagnetic induction in 1822 laid the groundwork for electric motors. Notable inventors like Peter Barlow, Istvan Jedlik, and Moritz Jacobi made significant strides in developing early DC motors. The chapter also delves into the development of AC motors, with key contributions from Galileo Ferraris, Nikola Tesla, and Michael Dolivo-Dobrowolsky. The invention of the three-phase AC system by Friedrich August Haselwander revolutionized power transmission. The chapter concludes with a brief overview of modern variable-speed drives and the evolution of electromobility, highlighting the pivotal role of lithium-ion batteries in contemporary electric vehicles.AI Generated
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AbstractThe fundamentals of electric drives are already around 200 years old, and the first electric vehicles were built over 120 years ago. This chapter provides an overview of the development of the technologies required for a modern electric car, from the electric motor to the power electronics and the battery. -
Chapter 2. Drives for Electric Vehicles
Martin DoppelbauerThe chapter begins with an in-depth analysis of the characteristics of combustion engines and electric motors, focusing on torque, speed, and power. It delves into the complex electromagnetic design of electric motors, including the critical role of the magnetic circuit, wires, and windings. The mechanical design is also highlighted, with a particular focus on the strength of the rotor due to high speeds. The chapter further explores the sophisticated cooling systems required for modern traction motors and the need for multi-physics optimization to balance performance across all domains. The text concludes with practical examples and a comparison of different electric drive configurations, making it a valuable resource for professionals in the field.AI Generated
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AbstractThis chapter presents the main operating characteristics of electric traction drives, in particular the speed/torque characteristics and the operating point-dependent losses. Similarities and differences to conventional internal combustion engines are shown. Emphasis is placed on the explanation of the constant torque and constant power range as well as the various operating limits in continuous and short-time operations. -
Chapter 3. Hybrid Vehicle Drives
Martin DoppelbauerThis chapter delves into the fundamentals of hybrid vehicle drives, explaining the concept of hybridization and the degree of hybridization H. It classifies hybrid vehicle types into micro-hybrid, mild-hybrid, full-hybrid, and plug-in hybrid, each with distinct technical properties and voltage classes. The chapter also discusses various hybrid modes of operation such as load point shifting, sailing, and braking energy recovery, as well as different hybrid drive structures like serial hybrid, parallel hybrid, and power-split hybrid. Each section is richly illustrated with examples and technical details, making it a valuable resource for professionals in the automotive industry.AI Generated
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AbstractThis chapter introduces the hybrid vehicle types, operating modes, and technologies. An overview is given of the common motor and transmission variants for hybrid and fully electric passenger cars. The hybrid vehicle classes from micro-hybrid to plug-in hybrid are presented in detail. The required motor power and battery capacities and the technical functionalities are presented. The shell diagram of the combustion engine is used to illustrate how fuel savings can be realized through hybrid drives and their potential. Finally, the hybrid powertrains (serial, parallel, and power-split hybrid drive) are discussed. The planetary gearbox, which is presented in detail in a separate section, is essential for power-split drives. -
Chapter 4. Driving Resistances and Energy Consumption
Martin DoppelbauerThe chapter delves into the intricacies of driving resistances and energy consumption in vehicles, focusing on the four primary components: aerodynamic, rolling, climbing, and acceleration resistances. It explains how these factors vary with speed and external conditions, such as road surface and wind. Notably, the text emphasizes the significant increase in energy consumption at high speeds, particularly on highways, and discusses the efficiency of braking energy recovery. The chapter also explores the differences in energy consumption between various types of vehicles, including electric and fuel cell vehicles, and provides real-world examples to illustrate these concepts. Additionally, it touches on the methodologies used to measure energy consumption, such as the WLTP and RDE procedures, and compares these to older methods like the NEDC. The text concludes with a discussion on the future of energy-efficient vehicles and the importance of accurate testing procedures.AI Generated
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AbstractThe driving resistance force is made up of various components. Together with the speed, this results in the required drive power. In electric cars, part of the energy used during braking can be recovered by braking energy recovery. The chapter introduces the most common driving cycles worldwide and describes how the energy consumption of hybrid vehicles is measured. Finally, the CO2 efficiency classes of passenger cars are presented. -
Chapter 5. Operating Strategy
Martin DoppelbauerThe chapter delves into the crucial role of the operating strategy in hybrid vehicles, focusing on minimizing fuel consumption through targeted control of hybrid operating modes. It explores various optimization strategies, such as rule-based methods using characteristic maps and heuristics, online optimization through continuous evaluation of driving states, and predictive strategies that anticipate future driving profiles. Additionally, the chapter highlights the importance of driver interaction, discussing techniques like pedal counterpressure and status displays to encourage energy-efficient driving. It also considers driver inputs to adapt the operating strategy, offering a holistic approach to hybrid vehicle optimization.AI Generated
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AbstractThe selection of the best operating strategy by the hybrid controller depending on the situation is essential for the success in minimizing the consumption of an electric or hybrid vehicle. Many concepts and algorithms are known for this purpose, some of which are presented in this section. -
Chapter 6. Energy Storage Systems
Martin DoppelbauerThe chapter delves into the classification and comparison of technical energy storage systems, highlighting their physical principles and applications. It discusses thermal, electrochemical, and electrostatic storage systems, with a focus on electrochemical storage systems like lithium-ion batteries. The text also covers key performance metrics such as energy density, power density, and cycle life, and provides real-world examples from the automotive industry. Additionally, it explores the future developments and challenges in energy storage technologies, making it a valuable resource for professionals seeking to understand the latest advancements in this field.AI Generated
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AbstractThis chapter covers the basics of electrochemical energy storage systems. The most important variants—lead-acid batteries, nickel–metal hydride batteries, and lithium-ion batteries—are presented in detail. The lithium-ion battery in particular has a variety of different materials for the anode, cathode, and electrolyte, resulting in some very different operating characteristics. Separate sections are devoted to the various charging methods, charge balancing between the various parallel-connected cells, cell designs, and the structure of battery storage systems (stack, battery management). Modeling the operating behavior of lithium-ion batteries as accurately as possible is necessary to control fast charging in such a way that no irreversible damage occurs. Suitable models are presented. In the final sections of the chapter, the hydrogen storage is discussed. -
Chapter 7. Fundamentals of Electric Machines
Martin DoppelbauerThe chapter begins by discussing the remarkable progress in electric drives since the 2000s, driven by the automotive industry. Key advancements include improved numerical calculation methods, better materials, and innovative cooling techniques, resulting in a significant increase in power density. The operating principle of electric machines is explained, focusing on the attraction of magnetic poles and the generation of torque. The chapter also delves into the different types of electric motors, such as three-phase motors, and the forces involved, including Lorentz and reluctance forces. Additionally, it covers the base speed range, field weakening range, and the factors affecting power density. The chapter concludes by discussing materials used in electric machines, cooling methods, and the importance of efficiency and losses in motor design.AI Generated
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AbstractAfter a brief introduction to the basic functional principle of electric machines and the three-phase system, the three main basic variants of electric machines, the induction machine, the externally excited, and the permanent magnet synchronous machine, are presented. This is followed by an overview of the designs of the stator and rotor of these three motor variants. The physical background of braking energy recovery (voltage generation) and motor operation (magnetic forces) is explained in more detail. The base speed range and the field weakening range, which were presented purely phenomenologically in the second chapter, are now introduced in detail on the basis of the magnetic properties of the motor. The chapter concludes with an overview of the properties of the materials used and the losses that occur in electric machines. -
Chapter 8. Synchronous Machines
Martin DoppelbauerThe chapter delves into the d/q coordinate system used in synchronous machines, introducing the physical operation and mathematical representation of three-phase windings and synchronous machines. It explains the transformation from three-phase to two virtual stator phases and the Park transformation, which simplifies calculations by making all three-phase alternating variables constant. The text also covers the mathematical model of the synchronous machine, torque creation, and the distinction between synchronous and reluctance torque. It highlights the practical applications of the d/q coordinate system in machine controllers and the design considerations for different types of synchronous machines, making it a valuable resource for professionals in the field.AI Generated
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AbstractThis chapter is dedicated to the detailed description of the function and operating characteristics of synchronous machines in their various forms. In particular, the description of the machine behavior and the control in d–q coordinates are explained. This results in the equations for describing the generation of torque from synchronous torque and reluctance torque. The parameter plane is introduced in a short section. It enables a systematic rotor design to achieve the desired torque–speed behavior. Finally, critical operating states such as short circuit and sudden loss of load are discussed, which must be mastered in the event of a fault. -
Chapter 9. Induction Machines (IM)
Martin DoppelbauerThe chapter discusses the electrical operating behavior of Induction Machines (IM) and their control systems. Unlike synchronous machines, IM cannot undergo a rotor-fixed d-q transformation due to the different speeds of the rotor and stator fields. The chapter introduces a coordinate system oriented with the rotor flux for motor control, simplifying the analysis. It also presents the single-phase equivalent circuit diagram, which simplifies calculations by electrically coupling the stator and rotor circuits. The chapter delves into the components of this diagram, including resistances, reactances, and current paths. Additionally, it explains the calculation of the internal torque and the maximum torque (breakdown torque) of IM, comparing it to synchronous machines. The chapter concludes with an analysis of the torque-speed characteristics of IM, highlighting the breakdown torque and its dependence on voltage-frequency ratios.AI Generated
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AbstractIn the short chapter on asynchronous machines, the equations for the single-phase equivalent circuit diagram are explained. The torque and operating behavior can be derived from this. -
Chapter 10. Power Electronic Components
Martin DoppelbauerThe chapter begins by explaining the basics of semiconductors, their electrical conductivity, and the role of doping in controlling their electrical properties. It then delves into the operation of diodes, highlighting the crucial role of the pn junction and the space-charge region in determining the device's behavior. The chapter also explores the principles behind modern power electronic switches, such as MOSFETs and IGBTs, discussing their structure, operation, and advantages over traditional components like thyristors and bipolar junction transistors. Additionally, it touches on the importance of wide-bandgap semiconductors for achieving higher switching frequencies. Throughout the chapter, the text provides clear and concise explanations, making it an invaluable resource for professionals seeking to deepen their understanding of power electronic components.AI Generated
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AbstractThis chapter presents the most important semiconductors and power electronic components that make up the assemblies required in hybrid and electric vehicles, in particular, DC/DC and DC/AC converters. These are primarily semiconductor valves (diodes) and power electronic switches (MOSFET, IGBT). -
Chapter 11. Topology of Electric Drivetrains
Martin DoppelbauerThis chapter explores the intricate topology of electric drivetrains, focusing on the basic structure of electric drive systems in battery electric and fuel cell vehicles. It delves into the components such as DC/DC converters, inverters, and motors, highlighting the conversion of DC to AC voltage for efficient motor operation. The text also discusses advanced modulation techniques like sine-delta and space vector modulation, crucial for achieving sinusoidal currents and minimizing losses. Additionally, it covers the rotor-flux-oriented control of synchronous machines, a vital method for optimizing motor performance. Overall, the chapter offers a detailed and engaging exploration of the complexities and innovations in electric drivetrain design, making it a valuable resource for specialists in the field.AI Generated
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AbstractIn this chapter, the basic structure and function of the main components of the electric drivetrain, namely, power electronic components are presented in a brief overview. The connection between the battery (DC) and the motor (AC) is established via power electronic energy converters. A distinction is made between DC/AC and DC/DC converters. This chapter presents the various switching and control concepts. Further sections are devoted to the control of current, voltage, torque, and speed of the two types of electrical machine (synchronous and induction motor). -
Chapter 12. Charging Systems
Martin DoppelbauerThe chapter delves into the intricacies of electric vehicle charging systems, highlighting the differences between AC and DC charging methods. It discusses the technical specifications of various charging standards, such as CCS, CHAdeMO, and the Tesla plug, and explains the safety measures implemented to ensure secure charging. Additionally, the chapter explores innovative charging solutions like inductive charging and battery swapping, which aim to enhance the charging experience and efficiency. The text also covers the challenges and future trends in charging infrastructure, making it a valuable resource for professionals in the automotive and energy sectors.AI Generated
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AbstractThe chapter provides an overview of charging methods for EVs. This is followed by a detailed discussion of the different plug variants and their performance. The focus is on conductive charging for cars, but systems for commercial vehicles and contactless systems are also briefly discussed. The chapter ends with an overview of the technical characteristics of hydrogen refueling stations. -
Chapter 13. Framework of Individual Mobility
Martin DoppelbauerThe chapter introduces a framework for estimating the feasibility of electromobility projects, emphasizing the importance of preliminary assessments. It discusses the complexities of multi-institutional research and the need for comprehensive studies. The text covers the environmental and cost considerations of individual mobility, highlighting the challenges of reducing emissions and the importance of coordinating research efforts. It also provides insights into the political and technological factors influencing the transition to sustainable transportation. The chapter concludes with a call for a transformative approach to achieve long-term sustainability.AI Generated
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AbstractBased on the concept of sustainability, this chapter motivates and explains regional and global climate protection efforts and targets. This is followed by an overview of the global automotive landscape: vehicle fleets, consumption, and mileage. Further sections shed light on global emissions in connection with electricity production, the switch to renewable energies, and the status of electromobility. The chapter concludes with a discussion of the various raw materials required for electromobility. Their range, production conditions, and possible environmental damage. And finally, a section on second use and recycling of batteries. -
Chapter 14. Production and Distribution of Energy
Martin DoppelbauerThis chapter delves into the intricacies of energy production and distribution, emphasizing the distinction between finite and renewable primary energies. It explores the conversion of primary energy into energy carriers such as petrol, diesel, and electricity, and discusses the production and properties of synthetic fuels. The text also touches on the infrastructure and future outlook of finite primary energies, providing insights into the range and sustainability of these resources. Additionally, it examines the production and potential applications of hydrogen as an energy carrier, including its advantages and challenges. The chapter concludes by comparing the efficiency and practicality of hydrogen and synthetic fuels with battery electric vehicles, offering a nuanced perspective on the future of energy technologies.AI Generated
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AbstractThis chapter highlights various technical options for supplying mobile vehicles with energy. The energy chains from the provision of primary energy to the energy carriers at the filling or charging stations are presented. First, the most important primary energy sources and energy carriers are presented with their chemical properties. In the case of finite primary energies, the currently available reserves and the achievable ranges are presented. For renewable raw materials, the land requirements are estimated accordingly. An extensive section is devoted to electricity production from conventional and renewable energy sources, including the necessary distribution grids and their stability. The chapter concludes with a section on hydrogen. The various options for producing hydrogen and distributing it at filling stations are briefly presented. A further section highlights the many ways in which hydrogen can be used in vehicles, for grid stabilization and in industrial processes. -
Chapter 15. Life-Cycle Assessment
Martin DoppelbauerThe chapter begins by distinguishing between greenhouse gases and pollutants, highlighting their impacts on climate change and health. It then discusses the global warming potential (GWP) of various substances and the cumulative energy input and environmental impacts of vehicles. The well-to-wheel (WtW) energy chain is introduced, covering the entire path from energy extraction to vehicle use. The chapter also provides examples of WtW analyses for different vehicle types and fuels, comparing their CO2 emissions. Additionally, it delves into the life-cycle assessment of vehicles, considering raw materials, use phase, recycling, and emissions like acidification, eutrophication, and particulate matter pollution. The production-related emissions of various vehicle components, including the body, drivetrain, and energy storage systems, are also examined. The chapter concludes by summarizing the equivalent CO2 emissions of average passenger cars over their lifetime, highlighting the significant emissions from diesel vehicles and the potential savings from battery electric vehicles and green hydrogen cars.AI Generated
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AbstractThis chapter discusses the direct and indirect harmful emissions from cars and how these can be assessed and compared. Building on the findings of the previous chapters, examples are then given of how emissions from the operation of cars with different drive technologies can be calculated. However, such considerations are not sufficient for a comprehensive assessment of the footprint of a car technology. Rather, the costs of production, the entire use phase, and possible recycling must also be considered. Such life-cycle analyses are introduced and presented using average cars as examples. -
Chapter 16. Costs of Electric Mobility
Martin DoppelbauerThe chapter delves into the economic aspects of electric mobility, highlighting the costs of producing battery electric vehicles (BEVs) and the infrastructure needed for charging points. It begins by comparing the direct costs of BEVs and internal combustion engine (ICE) vehicles, showing that while BEVs were initially more expensive, the gap is expected to narrow significantly by 2030. The chapter then examines the charging infrastructure required for Germany's entire car fleet by 2050, estimating the number and types of charging points needed and their associated costs. It also discusses the maintenance and service requirements of BEVs, noting that they have fewer moving parts and thus lower maintenance costs compared to ICE vehicles. The chapter concludes by summarizing the economic feasibility of a complete transition to BEVs in Germany, considering both investment and operational costs.AI Generated
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AbstractThis chapter estimates the costs of electric vehicles, batteries, and the necessary infrastructure. The studies on infrastructure are carried out using Germany as an example, whereby the year 2050 is assumed as the limit scenario, when hopefully all cars will be emission-free battery electric vehicles. The distribution of charging points is estimated on this basis. The estimated costs per charging point then result in an investment sum for the expansion of the infrastructure. -
Backmatter
- Title
- Introduction to Electromobility
- Author
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Martin Doppelbauer
- Copyright Year
- 2024
- Publisher
- Springer Fachmedien Wiesbaden
- Electronic ISBN
- 978-3-658-45482-1
- Print ISBN
- 978-3-658-45481-4
- DOI
- https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-658-45482-1
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