Living with Wildlife in Zimbabwe

Table of Contents

1. Frontmatter

2. Chapter 1. Human Wildlife Conflict and Opportunities for Co-existence

   Beaven Utete, Joshua Matanzima

   Abstract

   Human-wildlife conflicts are on the rise in Zimbabwe; and co-existence between the two can be hardly achieved in the short-term due to numerous socio-economic, environmental, institutional, and political conditions. There are challenges in defining the key concepts of conflict and co-existence among different stakeholders. Resultantly, conservationists devise solutions that are inapplicable in solving critical conservation, conflict and co-existence challenges. For example, some incidents labelled human-wildlife conflict are not, but they are contestations among different stakeholders over conservation. In this introductory Chapter we discuss these concepts of human-wildlife conflict, human conflicts over wildlife, co-existence and conservation; by synthesizing their available working definitions as it is provided in the previous literature. This is pertinent in that it makes it easier for the reader to follow these issues as they are raised in the book. These issues prevail variedly in Zimbabwe, and different chapters based on fieldwork elucidate these variations as they occur in different parts of the country.

3. Chapter 2. Conflict Between Humans About Wildlife: Social Constructions of Elephants in the Mid-Zambezi Valley, Northern Zimbabwe

   Vincent Jani

   Abstract

   This study, by employing the social constructionist framework, sought to investigate conflict over the African elephant (Loxodonta africana) in Masoka Ward in the mid-Zambezi Valley, northern Zimbabwe, by analysing the meanings assigned to the species by stakeholders with diverse elephant management goals. A qualitative case study was employed to obtain an in-depth understanding of the social constructions of the African elephant. Data were collected through semi-structured face-to-face interviews with 25 purposively selected heads of households from the five villages in the ward, interviews with key informants as well as document analysis. Qualitative data were inductively and thematically analysed. The results showed that elephants were socially constructed as agricultural pests, a threat to human safety and a source of protein by agro-pastoralists; as endangered species by the conservation authorities; and as a valuable resource by all stakeholder groups. These social constructions were driven by different beliefs, shared experiences and competing interests of the diverse stakeholders regarding the management of elephants. It is recommended that wildlife managers investigate social groups’ competing social constructions of elephants and implement them in conflict mitigation processes.

4. Chapter 3. Human-Wildlife Conflicts and Livelihoods in Binga District, Zimbabwe: Local Communities’ Lived Experiences

   Teverayi Muguti

   Abstract

   This chapter traces human-wildlife conflicts (HWCs) in Binga district, located in northwest Zimbabwe. Situated at Zimbabwe’s border with Zambia, the borderland district is endowed with wildlife resources including wild animals and forestry. Lake Kariba is the main habitat for aquatic animals including fish, hippopotamuses, crocodiles in the district. The district also has a wide range of wildlife conservancies including Chizarira National Park, Chete Safari Area as well as several forestry conservancies. These conservancies harbor mostly terrestrial wild animals including elephants, baboons, impalas, elands, hyenas, monkeys, and lions. Significant human–wildlife interactions (both inside and outside these areas) have both positively and negatively affected the surrounding Binga communities’ livelihoods in diverse ways. Existing literature in Zimbabwe has delineated Human Wildlife Conflict (HWC) in various parts of the country, including the Zambezi valley. However, this chapter alternatively utilizes a case study approach to HWC, focusing on Binga district. Using interviews, ethnography, netnography, newspapers, government publications and already existing secondary sources, this study explores the diverse livelihood eventualities arising from HWC in Binga. These include loss of human life, the destruction of crops, household property, and domestic animals as well as human to human conflicts over control of wildlife. Furthermore, the study evaluates the role of state wildlife management agencies including the Zimbabwe National Parks and Wildlife Management Authority (ZNPWMA) and the Communal Areas Management Programme for Indigenous Resources (CAMPFIRE) in ameliorating HWC in the district. Essentially, the study not only expands the understanding of HWC but also human conflicts over wildlife in Zimbabwe, with a goal to broaden the knowledge base for the betterment of sustainable human–wildlife coexistence in Africa and globally.

5. Chapter 4. The Urban Elephant Threat: A Case of Binga Centre, Northwest Zimbabwe

   Codelia Dhodho

   Abstract

   During Zimbabwe's Fast-track Land Reform Program launched in 2000, Binga Town had to deal with herds of elephants occasionally roaming into the residential areas. This chapter analyses the causes of the urban human-elephant conflict using Binga as a case study. To achieve this, it analyses how the land reform programme contributed to the conflict; analyses the nature of the conflict and how people responded to the urban elephant threat. It establishes that the Fast-track Land Reform Programme led to human invasion of elephant habitats which increased human-elephant conflict. Elephants raided crops and the resettled farmers retaliated by illegally killing the animals. Elephants fled from the danger of poachers in the bush and encroached on urban landscapes in search of temporary refuge. Urban dwellers tolerated the risks posed by the presence of small herds of roaming elephants because they did not face the hardship of rural farmers whose crops were destroyed by crop-raiding elephants. There is need for Communal Areas Management Programme for Indigenous Resources (CAMPFIRE) officials to address the root causes of the problem and arm residents with rubber bullet guns of chilli pepper spray guns for protection.

6. Chapter 5. Human-Carnivore Conflict: A Case of Painted Dog Population Dynamics in Hwange National Park

   Prosperity Mpala, Anele U. Matshisela, Keith Phiri, Mlamuleli Mhlanga, Chiedza L. Mgumba, Luckson Ncube

   Abstract

   Human-carnivore conflict has become a major concern in many conservation areas worldwide. In particular, painted dog population dynamics have been adversely affected by anthropogenic factors such as habitat loss, poaching, and retaliatory killing in Hwange National Park, Zimbabwe. This research investigates the population trends of painted dogs within Hwange National Park, analyzing the consequences of human-wildlife conflict, which encompass incidents such as livestock predation and retaliatory killings. The study was conducted through the monitoring of human-painted dog conflicts using Very High Frequency (VHF) collars. Most of the human-painted dog conflict hot spots identified were in between the boundaries of communities and protected areas. The painted dog pack under study had a litter of ten pups. Livestock depredation was identified as a major factor contributing to human-wildlife conflict leading to increased retaliatory killing. The highest numbers of livestock depredation were recorded during the cool-dry season when the livestock were left unattended. The findings suggest that effective measures are needed to mitigate human-carnivore conflict to ensure the long-term survival of painted dogs in Hwange National Park.

7. Chapter 6. Knowledge, Attitudes and Perceptions of Communities Towards the CAMPFIRE: A Case Study of Selected Districts of Matabeleland

   Keith Phiri, Anele U. Matshisela, Blessing Mathe, Mlamuleli Mhlanga, Chiedza L. Mgumba, Dumoluhle Bukhosi Mpofu, Tagwirei C. Maunganidze

   Abstract

   The Community Areas Management Programme for Indigenous Resources (CAMPFIRE) improved conservation and rural livelihoods in Zimbabwe. Despite its perceived benefits, there are controversies around the program amongst different stakeholders, with some arguing that the program has not delivered and continues not to deliver the intended benefits, while others assert that it has benefited the community. This study examines different forms of knowledge, attitudes and perceptions of communities toward the CAMPFIRE in Matabeleland. Data were collected through interviews with key informants and questionnaires administered to households in rural areas of Tsholotsho, Hwange, Matobo, and Plumtree from August to November 2022. The study reveals that the CAMPFIRE program had positive impacts on conservation and rural livelihoods in Matabeleland. The findings also suggest that the CAMPFIRE program improved livelihoods of the villagers by creating employment, reducing human-wildlife conflicts, dam scooping and drilling boreholes for them. However, the program also faces several challenges, including insufficient support from the government and low levels of community participation in decision-making. In order to increase the success of CAMPFIRE operations, the study recommends greater community involvement in their planning and execution. As well, the program needs to be better aligned with community needs and priorities, and there is also need to effect robust transparency and accountability in its management.

8. Chapter 7. Human-Wildlife Conflict in the Middle Sabi Communities of Chipinge, Zimbabwe: Exploring the Peace-Building Trajectory

   Owen Mangiza, Joshua Chakawa

   Abstract

   Human–wildlife conflict (HWC) is a serious impediment to the success of conservation initiatives within and outside protected areas. It includes elements of human– human conflict (HHC) between different stakeholder groups with divergent wildlife management goals. This study analysed HWCs in communities in the Middle Sabi, which lies between Chipinge Safari Area and the Save Valley Conservancy (SVC). Data were collected in November 2023 through in-depth interviews with 12 purposively sampled key informants, published and unpublished secondary sources as well as the media. Our findings showed that, in the Middle Sabi, proximate conflicts between people and wildlife included livestock predation, crop damage, human injuries and death as well as property damage which sometimes evolved into conflicts between various stakeholders with diverse opinions and interests regarding wildlife management. The escalation of conflicts between people and wildlife was compounded by a lack of involvement of local communities in wildlife conservation, the absence of a clear compensation framework, negative perceptions of wildlife staff and a lack of an inclusive stakeholder engagement aimed at addressing the needs and opinions of stakeholders. A study such as this is important in that it widens knowledge on reducing HWCs so as to promote conservation efforts and increases our understanding of the consequences of the land reform program on parks and wildlife in Zimbabwe. This study proposes that the previously overlooked peace-building trajectory, which is a key component to reduce or transform conflict between hostile camps, be employed to address conflict over wildlife and ensure coexistence between people and wildlife. This can be achieved through stakeholder engagement which assists in addressing the needs and opinions of various stakeholders with divergent wildlife management goals.

9. Chapter 8. Negative Human-Wildlife Interactions in Ndau Communities Bordering the Save Valley Conservancy in Chipinge District, Zimbabwe (1990–2023)

   James Hlongwana, Munyika Sibanda

   Abstract

   The chapter discusses the negative relationship between the Ndau communities in the Sabi (Sabi’ is the English version of the word ‘Save’ which is derived from Save River in Zimbabwe) Valley and wild animals in the Save Valley Conservancy. The Save River marks the boundary between the Ndau communities and the Save Valley Conservancy. Owing to the harsh economic situation in the Sabi Valley, some Ndau community members from the villages across the Save River such as Gumira, Rupisi, Chibuwe, Mkasa and others sneak into the game reserve in search of meat and ivory through poaching as well as gathering of herbs and firewood that they use to get by in everyday life. At the same time, wild animals escape from the conservancy through the areas where the fence will have been damaged and wreak havoc within local communities. In retaliation, people kill dangerous animals. As well, non-dangerous animals, such as impala, kudu and others, are killed for consumption. The Chapter draws from document interrogation and interviews. The paper argues that human-wildlife conflict which is occurring in the Sabi Valley is borne out of the ongoing economic crisis bedeviling the Zimbabwean society.

10. Chapter 9. Fast Track Land Reform and Wildlife Welfare in South-Eastern Zimbabwe

    Emmanuel Ndhlovu

    Abstract

    In the early 2000s, Zimbabwe embarked on a broad-based Fast Track Land Reform Programme (FTLRP). The socio-economic and environmental impacts of this programme are well documented. However, there is limited scholarly attention on aspects such as wildlife welfare. This chapter seeks to close this gap that has practical and policy implications by (i) examining the impact of the FTLRP on wildlife welfare (both flora and fauna) in south-eastern Zimbabwe and (ii) proposing interventions by which wildlife welfare can be achieved during land redistribution. The chapter is based on a review of secondary literature obtained in both grey and academic literature using the terms ‘fast land reform programme’, ‘biodiversity’, ‘south-eastern Zimbabwe’, and ‘Wildlife’ as key terms. The chapter also draws from previous empirical studies conducted by the author in south-eastern Zimbabwe over the years. The chapter shows that there was no proper planning to ensure the welfare of wildlife under the FTLRP. The programme resulted in opportunistic poaching, haphazard harvesting of natural resources, and vandalism of protected areas, thus disregarding wildlife welfare. There is need for context-specific approaches such as wildlife-based land reform to ensure the welfare of wildlife in agro-ecological dry areas such as the south-eastern lowveld.

11. Chapter 10. Impact of Fences on Human Wildlife Conflict in Communities Bordering the Northern Gonarezhou National Park, Southeastern Zimbabwe

    Itai Dhliwayo, Never Muboko, Edson Gandiwa

    Abstract

    Reports on problem animals are on the increase and this is associated with livestock predation, crop losses, poaching, retaliatory killing, loss of human lives, increased human wildlife conflicts (HWC) and poverty. In some spaces, HWC intervention measures such as fences established to separate communities and wildlife have failed to provide the much-needed peace and security on the peripheries as interaction between local people and wildlife continue to intensify, especially at the boundary between a communal area and protected area. This study sought to understand ecological strategies and mechanisms adopted by local people living on the edges of Gonarezhou National Park, southeast Zimbabwe to promote co-existence. Faced with competing interests within the local communities, the main question in this study was to establish whether local communities needed the Communal Areas Management Programme for Indigenous Resources (CAMPFIRE) which would require limited fencing for sustainability purposes or full fences. Data were collected between January and February 2024 and a total of 322 participated. A mixed research method was used in this study where focus group discussions, structured and semi-structured interviews were adopted as data collection instruments. The research established that there is a growing tension between communities and wildlife, HWC is on the increase and fencing alone cannot fully address co-existence. The study concluded that the existing local ecological mechanisms are not enough to support co-existence and promote biodiversity. Fences play a key role in mitigating HWC and co-existence can only be possible after proper planning and management, which entails effective fencing and meaningful involvement of local communities. The findings from this study help to strengthen the already existing co-existence mechanisms and strategies by local communities in the study area. The research recommends for the strengthening of local indigenous ecological pathway strategies.

12. Chapter 11. Human-Wildlife-Water Conflicts (HWWC) Inside and Outside of Protected Areas in Zimbabwe

    Beaven Utete

    Abstract

    Humans and wildlife share conservation landscapes and interaction is inevitable. Such interaction, mostly, results in negative outcomes for either parties through injury, harm, fatality, displacement, translocation, and restriction (confinement). Human wildlife conflict (HWC) has straightforward dynamics and is often more reported in Problem Animal Control (PAC) in terrestrial landscapes. However, HWC is complex and less often reported for aquatic systems inside and outside of protected areas in Zimbabwe. The fact that most of the protected areas are located in arid or semi-arid regions in the country implies that there is more competition among livestock, humans and wildlife for the scarce water resources. Such competition over water resources is termed human-wildlife-water conflict (HWWC in this Chapter) and has negative consequences on both wildlife biodiversity and livelihoods. The negative consequences of HWC in aquatic systems induces resentment towards the predators comprising mainly the Nile crocodile (Crocodylus niloticus), amphibious common hippopotamus (Hippopotamus amphibious) and the Nile monitor lizard (Varanus niloticus). In this chapter the focus is on the drivers of water conflicts, the risky livelihood activities that exposes humans and livestock to attacks from predators, and local perceptions on PAC in aquatic systems inside and outside of protected areas in Zimbabwe.

13. Chapter 12. Harnessing (New) Digital Technology for Effective Human-Wildlife Conflict Mitigation in Zimbabwe

    Knowledge Mwonzora, Gift Mwonzora

    Abstract

    As of today, several sectors have not been spared from the digitalization wave. This is evident in the widespread adoption dovetailed with heightened use of new technology through the Internet of Things (IoT), Machine Learning, Big Data, augmented reality and Artificial Intelligence (AI). Despite this considerable progress, less is known regarding the use of new technological devices, gadgets and applications in managing human wildlife conflict (HWC). Though the trend might have gained a foothold in the Global North, countries in the Global South are yet to embrace new technology including drones, motion sensors, infrared cameras and acoustic sensors to detect, monitor and manage wildlife movement and behaviour. Utilising a multi case study analysis of ‘troubled sites’ in Zimbabwe, we established that the country has not yet embraced new digital technology to aid in mitigating human wildlife conflict. Yet, these digital platforms, apps, technology and gadgets do offer potential opportunities for monitoring and containing wildlife mobility and in informing communities on possible human wildlife clashes through early warning systems. We find that the adoption of such technologies will thus aid in ameliorating HWC in various rural and urban communities in Zimbabwe. Data were collected through a qualitative research methodology including the use of Focus Group Discussions, key informant interviews, desktop review and field observations in HWC hotspots in Zimbabwe. The study is significant as it provides a granular understanding on how policy experts, policy makers, researchers and communities can rethink effective ways of utilising new digital technologies in mitigating if not alleviating HWC in troubled hotspots.