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2025 | Book

Micromobility

Perspectives from Engineering, Urban Planning, Health Sciences and Social Sciences

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About this book

This book provides a comprehensive overview on micromobility, which is a mode of transportation that has become particularly popular among young people in recent years, due to the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic, and supports public transport for short distances. It includes contributions by an interdisciplinary pool of authors from civil engineering, urban and regional planning, law, social sciences, physiotherapy, and rehabilitation. It demonstrates that micromobility is a developing mode of transportation and represents a service that needs to be integrated into the transportation system. The book addresses micromobility from various perspectives, making it a reference tool for researchers, transportation planners, operators, decision-makers, and policy-makers. A special focus is put on the effects of micromobility on health, the business models, and the legal status of micromobility systems, reflecting perspectives from both health sciences and social sciences.

Table of Contents

Frontmatter
Chapter 1. Introduction
Abstract
E-scooters, which started to gain popularity especially among the youth before the COVID-19 pandemic and saw a rapid increase in use due to the pandemic, have significantly contributed to the spread of the micromobility concept and its adoption by wider segments of the public. In general, transportation systems that use small, individual vehicles capable of traveling at speeds below 25 km/h are considered micromobility. Among micromobility systems, there are different subtypes, such as bicycles, skates, and skateboards powered by human energy; segways and unicycles powered by electricity; and e-bikes and e-scooters that use a combination of human and electric energy. Significant developments in both the demand for micromobility and micromobility services are expected in the coming years.
Selim Dündar
Chapter 2. The History of Micromobility
Abstract
Although it has been a part of our lives for a long time, it is difficult to pinpoint when micromobility, as a concept, actually began. This is because, up until almost two centuries ago, the speeds provided by micromobility vehicles were considered high within the transportation system. Therefore, it is quite challenging to define where micromobility diverges from general mobility. For this reason, in this chapter, the history of the transportation system is briefly examined first. The development of roads in the context of the need for transportation is discussed, linking it to human history, followed by a focus on the emergence of different types of transportation. After discussing the current situation, new and innovative transportation systems are briefly mentioned, and some insights are provided on what can be expected in the future. Then, the historical development of the bicycle, along with its different types and models, is discussed with support of figures. Lastly, the development of scooters, with a particular focus on shared e-scooter systems, is briefly summarized by examining some historical examples.
Selim Dündar
Chapter 3. Micromobility Vehicles
Abstract
Although the concept of micromobility has relatively recently entered our lives, some micromobility systems or vehicles have been in use for many years. While some of these vehicles are used solely for transportation, there is a perception in society that others are more for recreation than for transportation. Key micromobility vehicles include types of bicycles, scooters, roller skates, and skateboards, but it's possible to encounter a wide variety of micromobility vehicles. In this section, different micromobility vehicles are briefly examined, and their roles within the transportation system are supported with photographs.
Selim Dündar
Chapter 4. Sociocultural Impacts of Micromobility
Abstract
Use of micromobility is on rise globally. However, it is important to understand the dynamics behind the choices of micromobility vehicles over other alternatives in order to develop policies and regulations. So, the first part of the chapter explores the choice theory. The theory behind the transportation mode choices is Discrete Choice Theory. It has a stochastic nature, and its mathematical background is given in this chapter. It is based on the assumption that individuals in the society aim to maximize their utilities while choosing a mode. Under the Discrete Choice Model family, different models exist to explain the choice behavior. The second part of the chapter Is about the acceptance of e-scooters by the society. One of the main issues about the acceptance is the number of accidents where e-scooters are involved. Other issues are readiness levels of the societies to new technologies, which differ between the society segments, and parking solutions. This chapter also provides information about the trip purposes of micromobility trips, such as recreation or short-distance trips, and shows usage differences between countries.
Gürkan Günay
Chapter 5. Micromobility and Urban Planning
Abstract
The rise of micromobility has significantly influenced urban planning, offering innovative solutions to address urban challenges such as traffic congestion, air pollution, and climate change. This chapter explores the impact of micromobility, encompassing electric scooters, bicycles, e-bikes, and other personal mobility devices, on sustainable and efficient urban transport systems. Drawing on the United Nations’ 2030 Sustainable Development Agenda, the study emphasizes the need for sustainable mobility strategies to improve urban quality of life. As cities increasingly integrate micromobility into their transport networks, urban planning has evolved to accommodate these changes, leading to new concepts like the 15-min city, where essential services are accessible within a short walk or cycle ride. The relationship between urban planning and micromobility is reciprocal; urban design must adapt to support the growth of micromobility, while micromobility provides opportunities to reshape urban spaces. This paper examines how micromobility contributes to reducing car dependency, creating pedestrian-friendly streets, and enhancing the use of green spaces. It assesses how the planning and development of dedicated infrastructure, such as bike lanes, scooter parking, and multi-modal hubs, can facilitate the safe and efficient use of micromobility vehicles. Moreover, it explores how urban planners can leverage micromobility to promote social equity by improving accessibility for diverse socio-economic groups. The study provides an in-depth analysis of micromobility policies and regulations, underscoring the importance of collaboration between urban planners, policymakers, and micromobility providers to ensure equitable and sustainable growth. It also addresses the challenges of safety, infrastructure inadequacies, and the need for regulations to guide effective integration into urban transport systems. By investigating infrastructure requirements, policy implications, and societal adaptation processes, this research aims to contribute to the development of strategies that position micromobility as a key component in future urban mobility plans. Ultimately, the findings highlight how investing in micromobility infrastructure can reshape cities into more livable, resilient, and sustainable environments.
Gizem Erdoğan Aydın
Chapter 6. An Insight into Energy Efficiency, Mobility, Accessibility, and Safety Characteristics of Micromobility
Abstract
Micromobility is a contemporary transportation mode that is implemented and tested within the urban transportation networks of cities around the world. Accumulating experiences around the world differ in certain aspects of micromobility such as its benefits, efficiency, and safety. Micromobility was originally intended to complement urban transit and supply the perceived demand for the last mile or last kilometer transportation needs of urban transit users. The immediate benefit based on this expectation was reduced car use in cities, and hence reduced congestions and reduced demand for car parking areas. However, lack of proper infrastructure, unregulated and unexpected uses of micromobility vehicles have resulted in safety violations and congestions in both pedestrianized areas and motorized traffic areas. Micromobility vehicles have attracted demand from people who would otherwise be walking or riding a bicycle. There have been cases where micromobility vehicles are chosen for their entertaining aspects as opposed to their more pragmatic aspects in terms of supplying the last mile demand of transit users. Accidents involving micromobility vehicles have resulted in significant injuries, challenging the perceived simplicity and harmless nature of micromobility. This chapter provides an insight into the benefits of micromobility in terms of its energy efficiency as compared to car use and benefits in terms of mobility and accessibility when compared to walking and riding bicycles. The chapter concludes by a discussion concerning the safety characteristics of micromobility vehicles.
Niyazi Özgür Bezgin
Chapter 7. Micromobility and Traffic
Abstract
Bicycles, e-scooters, skateboards, and roller skates are different micromobility systems that are increasingly popular, especially among young people. Among the main reasons for this popularity is the perception that they are environmentally friendly modes of transportation, as well as their ability to use dedicated lanes or paths, which allows them to be less affected by traffic congestion. However, not every city or every part of a city may have safe, dedicated paths for micromobility systems. In such cases, these vehicles often share roads with other motorized vehicles or continue their journey on pedestrian sidewalks. Both situations negatively impact road traffic safety. Additionally, since these vehicles usually move at slower speeds than the general traffic, they cause disruptions in traffic flow. In this chapter, basic information related to road traffic is presented first, followed by an examination of the effects of micromobility systems on traffic flow and traffic safety.
Selim Dündar
Chapter 8. Micromobility Safety
Abstract
Personal Micromobility Devices (PMDs), which are micro-sized and have limited power and speed, are a growing industry gaining popularity worldwide. Although PMDs are available for purchase, in recent years, the rise of shared e-scooter and e-bike service providers has made these devices widely used. Especially preferred for short-distance urban travel, e-scooters and e-bikes have some advantages such as better access to public transportation, less impact from traffic congestion, more economical travel opportunity for short distances, easy access to devices, and not creating air and noise pollution. However, there are also some disadvantages such as the danger they pose to pedestrians with any sight or mobility impairments by e-scooters parked/left on the sidewalk and ride on the sidewalk, and the disruption they create in traffic flow due to their lower speeds. In recent years, we have witnessed an increase in accidents involving e-scooters and e-bikes in many cities around the world. However, since these devices are not yet identified in official police records in many countries, it is difficult to access accident statistics. Lack of physical protection around these devices, particularly in collisions with motor vehicles, has resulted in serious consequences such as death and serious injury for e-scooter and e-bike riders. The low rates of helmet use among e-scooter riders also contributed to the severity of injuries. There are many risk factors that influence crashes involving PMDs. Excessive speed is a very important risk factor contributing to e-scooter and e-bike accidents. Many studies show that riders under the influence of alcohol and drugs are more likely to be involved in accidents and to be seriously injured. This section of the book provides statistical information on e-scooter and e-bike accidents and information on risk factors affecting accidents. It also provides recommendations for decision makers and micromobility operators.
Ebru Arıkan Öztürk
Chapter 9. Efficient Parking Solutions for Shared Micromobility Vehicles
Abstract
This chapter examines the parking infrastructure for shared micromobility systems, dockless or docked based, with a particular emphasis on the strategic planning necessary for parking area design and site selection. The literature underscores the critical role that well-designed parking infrastructure plays in enhancing the use and efficiency of micromobility options within urban environments. Dockless systems, while offering flexibility, require careful management to prevent irregular parking and ensure pedestrian safety. In contrast, docked systems, where shared micromobility vehicles must be rented and returned at specific stations, provide more organized distribution and enhanced security, though at the cost of reduced flexibility and higher installation expenses. Recent studies have explored various optimization methods to identify the most suitable locations for micromobility parking facilities. These studies often employ advanced multi-criteria decision-making frameworks and data-driven models that account for key variables, including population density, land use patterns, and the proximity of public transportation networks. The integration of these factors aims to seamlessly incorporate micromobility systems into the urban transportation system, thereby enhancing accessibility and operational efficiency. The chapter concludes by highlighting the essential factors influencing the selection of parking locations for shared micromobility vehicles, emphasizing the importance of safety, accessibility, and sustainability. These considerations are crucial to ensuring that shared micromobility systems contribute positively to urban mobility and enhance the quality of life for residents.
Oruc Altintasi, Dila Guzel
Chapter 10. Environmental Impacts of Micromobility
Abstract
Globally, the e-scooter/e-bike network has already spread to more than 500 cities, 60 countries, and five continents, with the largest scooter rental companies counting tens of millions of registered trips. However, it is important to evaluate the environmental impact of these micromobility vehicles. Are these transportation options really as eco-friendly as the media and social networks claim? The fact that e-scooters/e-bikes do not emit gases from exhaust pipes does not necessarily mean that they do not create emissions and are completely eco-friendly. The environmental impact of these micromobility modes depends on their lifecycle, including production, distribution, and disposal. More than half of the emissions are generated from the extraction of necessary raw materials and the manufacturing process. Moreover, e-scooters/e-bikes require batteries that contain rare metals and whose production processes are energy-intensive. Shared e-scooter/e-bike services also involve energy-consuming charging and maintenance processes. Furthermore, e-scooters have a short lifespan, and improper disposal can pose environmental risks. E-scooters/e-bikes are frequently thrown into bodies of water, dropped from buildings, set on fire or otherwise damaged. The positive impact on the climate from manufacturing and using e-scooters/e-bikes could become a reality if significant attention is given to recyclable materials and sustainable development. Choosing renewable energy sources and optimizing every step of the service supply chain is also crucial for maintaining an efficient servicing system.
Agne Karlikanovaite-Balıkçı
Chapter 11. Micromobility Use in University Campuses and New Recommendations
Abstract
The term “micromobility” is used to describe the use of lightweight transportation, including bicycles, scooters, and electric skateboards, for short-distance travel in urban areas. In recent years, micromobility has been found to be a prevalent mode of transportation on university campuses, providing an alternative form of transportation for students. This study presents a comprehensive evaluation of the use of micromobility on university campuses. The evaluation included an assessment of the level of use of micromobility on university campuses as measured by the UI GreenMetric system. This system was developed by the University of Indonesia in 2010 and is used to evaluate the sustainability practices of universities worldwide. The evaluation considered the ranking of universities with the highest scores on the transportation criterion on the UI GreenMetric World University Ranking website. In this context, the top universities on six different continents were selected for detailed study, with a particular focus on their use of micro-mobility. In addition, the ten universities in Türkiye with the highest transportation scores were selected for study. This paper discusses the measures that could be taken to encourage the use of micromobility on university campuses, with a special focus on the role of infrastructure and superstructure elements, as well as the importance of awareness training. Finally, it was suggested that a series of measures should be implemented to promote the use of micromobility on university campuses, including the construction of bicycle lanes, the provision of dedicated parking areas, the installation of charging stations, the organization of training and awareness activities, and the implementation of user awareness initiatives.
Mustafa Ulukavak, Hatice Gül Önder
Chapter 12. The Impact of Micromobility on Human Health
Abstract
Micromobility vehicles have emerged as a rapid and convenient alternative to meet the individual, social, and commercial transportation needs of people, especially those living in large cities. Driven by the perceptions of lower environmental impact, reduced energy consumption, economic benefits, and support for healthy lifestyles, their use is rapidly increasing worldwide. This section examines the direct and indirect impacts of micromobility vehicles on human and public health. It critically assesses to what extent public perceptions of the positive and negative health effects of micromobility vehicles align with the reality, based on scientific studies.
Ahmet Cüneyt Akgöl, Begüm Okudan
Chapter 13. Evaluation of Micromobility Vehicles in Terms of Ergonomics of Use
Abstract
Micromobility refers to small, lightweight, and usually electric vehicles designed for short-distance journeys. These vehicles, which are increasingly preferred in urban transportation, are used to reduce traffic congestion, be environmentally friendly, and facilitate personal transportation. Micromobility vehicles, generally used for short distances, such as electric scooters, bicycles, and similar vehicles, offer an effective transportation solution in urban mobility. When literature studies are examined, it is seen that micromobility generally focuses on integrating the transportation system. However, the fact that these vehicles are in public use creates some difficulties and restrictions in terms of ergonomics. This situation brings with it the problems experienced by users in terms of comfort and safety. In particular, vehicle design may not adequately respond to the needs of various user groups. Ergonomic elements such as handlebar height, footrest width, and accessibility of control mechanisms are among the factors that directly affect the user experience. In this study, micromobility vehicles were examined in terms of ergonomics, and suggestions were presented to ensure that these vehicles are preferred more by users. Suggestions include adjusting the vehicles according to the physical characteristics of the users, increasing comfort and safety, and developing designs suitable for different user groups. Ergonomic improvements will make the use of micromobility vehicles more attractive and will allow them to appeal to a wider range of users in urban transportation. In this context, considering micromobility from an ergonomic perspective is of great importance both in terms of increasing user satisfaction and supporting sustainable urban transportation.
Murat Önder
Chapter 14. Micromobility and Economy
Abstract
Transportation, which is seen as an important development tool in developed countries, is a field where developments in technology are used intensively. Problems such as energy and climate crises caused by fuel consumption at the global level leads developed countries’ technology and infrastructure investments in transportation towards electric alternatives, specifically for short-distance journeys. Micromobility is a short-range and electricity-oriented transportation adaptation that continues to develop rapidly to keep pace with these problems. It makes an economic contribution by saving costs and reducing travel time. It reduces distance cost by 69% and carbon emissions by 84% compared to the car when used with public transportation. Within the scope of this study, the current situation of micromobility in the cities of Türkiye is explained with basic economic variables and the potential cities where it can be the subject of investment are interpreted with spatial statistical analysis. The findings show that micromobility investments are located in cities which have metropolitan municipality administration also in the southern and western regions. Although not yet statistically significant, it is noteworthy that the results show that the correlation between high micromobility investment—high economic level is most significant in Istanbul, while the correlation between low micromobility investment—low economic level is most significant in the southeast and eastern regions. The emphasis on the fact that micromobility will gain a share of 25% in the mode choice for the future years, especially in developed countries, is a sign that micromobility will be a very important investment tool for the transportation and energy sectors of the national economy.
Furkan Akdemir, Hatice Gül Önder
Chapter 15. Business Models in Micromobility
Abstract
A business model can be defined as a structural and strategic framework that elucidates the manner in which an organization creates, delivers and monetizes value. The advent of the Industrial Revolution saw the emergence of business models that were to be transformed by the subsequent development of information technologies, giving rise to new business models in the digital age. As a consequence of this transformation, micromobility business models have emerged as a form of business production offering that encompasses the utilization of compact and lightweight transport vehicles, providing environmentally friendly and sustainable transportation solutions. In this field, business models that meet the short-distance travel needs of users and offer economical transport opportunities are particularly noteworthy. Such business models are typically classified as product-oriented, service-oriented, or function-oriented. The global micromobility market is experiencing a period of rapid growth, driven by a number of factors including urbanization, traffic congestion and environmental concerns. The regions where the leading companies in the micromobility market have their headquarters and have the highest market share are North America, Europe, Asia Pacific, the Middle East and Africa, and South America. The utilization of micromobility business models in countries such as the USA, Germany, France, China, the United Kingdom, Italy, Spain, Brazil and India is highly diverse. Each country has its own regulatory and legal frameworks, urbanization rates and consumer habits, as well as diverse micromobility business models. Furthermore, local and regional characteristics play an important role in the generation, delivery and growth of these business models. It is anticipated that micromobility solutions will continue to evolve in the future, driven by technological advancements such as the integration of AI and IoT systems and the incorporation of micromobility into public transportation. However, concerns have been raised about the potential limitations of these developments due to infrastructure deficiencies and legal-governance challenges.
Hatice Gül Önder, Furkan Akdemir
Chapter 16. Micromobility Data Need and Data Use
Abstract
In micromobility studies, data plays an important role, enabling the assessment of many aspects of mobility. Various data types are used to explore areas such as safety, policy evaluation, urban planning, and environmental sustainability. This chapter reviews the primary data types, sources, and collection methods in micromobility studies, including sensor data, surveys, field observations, built environment data, and archival data sources. Sensor data, such as mobile phone GPS and vehicle sensors, provide detailed insights into mobility patterns and environmental conditions but lack socio-demographic information. Surveys and observations are the primary data sources for user behavior and use of infrastructure. Built environment data examines factors like density, diversity, and design influencing micromobility. Archival data, including media reports and public records, are crucial for policy analysis and safety evaluations. The chapter also includes common practices in data preprocessing to enhance data accuracy, supporting researchers in advancing micromobility studies.
Volkan Emre Uz, Fırat Enver Kesmez
Chapter 17. Micromobility and Freight Transport
Abstract
Not only is micromobility significant in passenger transportation, but also in freight transportation, albeit with a smaller scale. Differences between the dynamics of passenger and freight transportation exist such as influencing factors, cost components and mode selection criteria. Such factors are reflected on micromobility as well. Obviously, e-scooters cannot be used in macroscale freight transport like inter-city trips, but can certainly be used in urban areas for light loads. More significant than e-scooters, drones have been being used for the deliveries of small units with an increasing trend. On the other hand, there are problems with drones such as the operation cost, reluctance of the society for drone use, privacy and security. Besides e-scooters and drones, autonomous freight vehicles are expected to be significant in future for road transport. In fact, there are existing solutions in autonomous freight delivery category, namely food delivery vehicles. However, similar to the case of drones, acceptance of these vehicles by the society and security issues remain problematic, and waiting to be solved by the companies and decision-makers.
Gürkan Günay
Chapter 18. Legal Implications Regarding Micromobility Systems from Administrative and Criminal Aspects
Abstract
The swift integration of e-scooters into daily life has taken many countries by surprise. While some have expanded their bicycle-related regulations, others have introduced new rules for e-scooters to address this shift. As e-scooters become more popular, countries have implemented various strategies to reduce accidents and behaviors that could disrupt traffic flow, aiming to create a safer environment for both riders and pedestrians. Regulations regarding e-scooters vary significantly from one country to another, and even between cities. These regulations cover aspects such as the vehicle category, maximum speed limits, parking rules, age restrictions, helmet requirements, restrictions on the maximum power of e-scooters in public areas, appropriate road usage, and whether registration or insurance is necessary. Regulations tailored to each country’s specific needs, developed with input from various stakeholders such as the public, e-scooter companies, shared e-scooter operators, and other road users, are likely to be more effective than a single universal regulation applied across all countries. Criminal liabilities related to the use of bicycles and e-scooters can arise from willful or reckless harm or endangerment. If a driver intentionally injures someone, or an animal, or damages property, they may face criminal charges, with the use of the vehicle potentially worsening the offense depending on the country. Similarly, deliberately causing danger, such as driving on sidewalks, can also be criminal, varying by country. Negligence, like ignoring traffic rules or riding without lights, can result in lower penalties compared to intentional acts, though penalties are higher if the driver is aware of potential risks but still breaks the rules. Finally, negligent actions, such as improper parking of shared vehicles, can also pose dangers.
Saadet Dilekci, Merve Duysak
Chapter 19. Disaster and Micromobility
Abstract
This chapter explores the critical role of transportation and micromobility in disaster management. Transportation systems are indispensable for effective disaster response and recovery, facilitating evacuation, rescue operations, and community reconstruction. However, these systems are vulnerable to disruptions caused by natural disasters, technological failures, and malicious acts. The closure of transportation routes due to disasters can have severe consequences, hindering access to affected areas and exacerbating the overall impact. Accessibility is heavily influenced by transportation infrastructure and facilities. Disasters can significantly disrupt accessibility, making it difficult to provide timely assistance and resources to affected communities. Defined as personal transportation vehicles weighing up to 350 kg, micromobility options offer a flexible and environmentally friendly alternative to conventional transportation methods. Micromobility, encompassing vehicles like bicycles, e-bikes, and scooters, offers a promising alternative for maintaining transportation during and after disasters. Micromobility vehicles can navigate damaged roads, access remote areas, and provide essential transportation services in situations where traditional vehicles are limited or unavailable. By providing real-world examples and feasibility analyses, this chapter demonstrates how micromobility can be effectively utilized in various disaster scenarios, such as earthquakes, tsunamis, and floods, to facilitate rapid resource deployment, support logistical operations, and ensure access to critical services. By enhancing transportation resilience and integrating micromobility solutions, communities can improve their ability to respond to and recover from disasters, minimizing their overall impact and promoting sustainable development.
Yalçın Alver, Pelin Önelçin
Chapter 20. Micromobility and Artificial Intelligence
Abstract
The intersection of micromobility and artificial intelligence (AI) is transforming urban transportation, offering sustainable and efficient alternatives to traditional vehicles. Micromobility, encompassing devices like electric scooters and bicycles, provides a flexible means of navigating urban environments, contributing to reduced traffic congestion and lower carbon emissions. AI enhances these solutions by introducing advanced navigation systems, automated safety measures, and adaptive technologies that personalize the user experience. AI-driven navigation systems leverage real-time data and machine learning algorithms to optimize routes, avoid traffic, and ensure safety. Safety is further improved through AI-powered obstacle detection and collision avoidance systems, which use sensors and real-time data processing to prevent accidents. The integration of AI also supports the maintenance of micromobility devices through predictive diagnostics, extending their lifespan and reliability. Moreover, AI-driven micromobility contributes to the development of smart cities by providing valuable data for urban planners, optimizing infrastructure, and improving traffic management. These advancements not only enhance the quality of life for urban residents but also promote social and economic benefits, such as reducing social inequalities and supporting economic growth. However, challenges such as data reliability, ethical concerns, and regulatory hurdles must be addressed to fully realize the potential of AI-enhanced micromobility in creating more connected and accessible urban environments.
Sina Alp
Chapter 21. Epilogue: Future of Micromobility
Abstract
Micromobility has evolved over the years but is not a transport mechanism that has fully established itself in urban areas. Currently, there are many questions in micromobility that need discussions and answers. And the answers to those questions are not rigid, they can vary from time to time and place to place. This chapter provides a summary of the topics discussed in this book and issues that may need addressing in future so that other researchers, practitioners and decision-makers can consider while working on micromobility. These issues range widely, from impacts on traffic and urban planning to the safety of micromobilty systems.
Gürkan Günay
Metadata
Title
Micromobility
Editor
Selim Dündar
Copyright Year
2025
Electronic ISBN
978-3-031-77098-2
Print ISBN
978-3-031-77097-5
DOI
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-77098-2