Microplastics (MPs) in Wastewater: Determination-Treatment Methods and Effects on Climate Change

Table of Contents

1. Frontmatter

2. Chapter 1. MPs Properties, Classification, Characterization, Sources, Environmental and Health Impact

   Munish Kaundal, Jagdeep Singh

   Abstract

   The increased use of diverse plastic products that results from high living standards and a modern way of life eventually leads to a rise in the production of plastic garbage in the environment. Microplastics (MPs) are a broad group of pollutants with a variety of morphologies, sizes, and aesthetic characteristics. They are made up of a variety of constituent polymers that have had variable amounts of additives and sorbed pollutants added to them. This review paper thoroughly examines how MPs are identified based on morphological characters, classification based on microscopic characters, its main sources and degradation in the environment, their degrees of toxicity and pollution, and challenges in controlling MPs along with potential effects on human health. In addition, we have reviewed how MPs are obtained from various sources which includes emissions from industries, synthetic textile sector, decomposing litter, fishing grounds, ocean debris, agricultural practices and tourist destinations. In addition, other water pollutants, such as dyes, heavy metals, and other chemicals, have been observed to adhere readily to MPs, and so these MPs serve as a transporter of many other pollutants in the bodies of aquatic species. This review paper includes also how MPs can cause certain issues in human body by affecting various systems like digestive system. reproductive system, respiratory, immune system and endocrine system.

3. Chapter 2. Potential Environmental Contamination by Microplastics

   Anjali Mishra, Pranjal Tripathi, Ram Sharan Singh

   Abstract

   Microplastics (MPs), an emerging potential environmental contaminant which have been produced as a result of increased manufacturing and consumption of plastic goods in our environment. These MPs size range between 0.1 μm to 5 mm and generated via primary and secondary sources. The primary ones are produced in the microplastics size range like microbeads, microfibers, and plastic pellets, whereas secondary MPs are produced as a result of the fragmentation of bigger plastic particles, which eventually invade in the aquatic, terrestrial, and atmospheric environments. MPs has been increasing extensively in the environment causing great threat globally, and gained research attention over the decades. These MPs are reportedly classified as omnipresent contaminant, and have been widely observed in soil, air and particularly in water or aquatic environment. The health of the environment and living things is negatively impacted by the rising level of MPs in the natural ecosystem. Due to their high durability, synthetic nature, and slow rate of degradation, these microplastics provide a significant threat to the environment. It accumulates in water, soil, and air and eventually it is consumed by the living organisms such as microbes, plants, animals including humans which can lead to alter the normal metabolic activities of the organisms. These MPs can interact with other organic pollutants, pathogenic microbes, heavy metals, toxic additives, etc., which impose the risk of other emerging chemical contaminants in the environment. This chapter is an effort to present current understanding of MPs contamination in aquatic, terrestrial and atmospheric environment, and the environmental effects of these contaminants, its interaction with other pollutant, and MPs effects on living organisms, its fate and transport and future prospects in detail by reviewing available scientific literature and data.

4. Chapter 3. Methods and Techniques for Microplastic Detection and Identification in Water and Wastewater—A Methodology Review

   Çiğdem Coşkun Dilcan, Enes Özgenç, Yeşim Ahi

   Abstract

   Water as a main resource of the food supply is decreasing in quantity and quality, thus exposing to danger human health. Urban and industrial wastewaters coming to the receiving environment in river basins create point source pollution, while agricultural fertilizer and pesticide use, livestock activities and atmospheric movements create diffuse source pollution load. It is necessary to identify risks and enhance measures in the context of defining, protecting, and developing water resources in the ecosystem. In this regard; it is important to monitor contaminants in water and wastewater with sustainable methods. Water resources contain a wide range of contaminants, including organic/inorganic and biological, that create a sustainable life risk. In parallel with the changing climatic and ecosystem conditions in the new century, the fauna and remains of living things show quite a difference. A newly recognized class of contaminants in all environmental compartments with the usage of plastic matters in the late 1950s are Microplastics (MPs) less than 5 mm in diameter. Microplastics, extremely small plastic particles, reflect a significant environmental issue of our time. These microscopic plastics raise substantial questions concerning both ecosystems and human health due to their widespread presence in the environment, long-lasting nature and ability to interact with living organisms. Despite the importance of understanding the complexity of microplastics, limited information exists regarding their identification and detection. Various techniques, including spectroscopy, microscopy and chromatography, are employed to examine microplastics. These analyses are of critical importance for monitoring microplastic pollution, identifying its sources and developing mitigation strategies. The chemical composition, size and morphology of microplastics are determined through these analyses, forming the basis for a better understanding of future water resource sustainability and the fight against microplastic pollution. Research in this field aims to assess the potential risks associated with microplastics and develop strategies to reduce their presence in water sources. The current study emphasizes the sources of microplastic pollution and commonly used methods for combating this pollution. It also provides insights into the potential risks posed by microplastics, focusing on their presence in the global water cycle, fundamental insights into the relationship between microplastics and ecosystems and measures to combat this pollution. Finally, it offers perspectives to guide future research efforts in this critical area.

5. Chapter 4. Evaluation of Microplastic Removal Efficiency in Wastewater Treatment Plants

   Munish Kaundal, Manish Kumar, Jagdeep Singh

   Abstract

   Microplastics (MPs) concentration in aquatic ecosystems rises as plastic manufacture rises year after year. MPs are a persistent and subtle environmental hazard that have already been linked to adverse effects on human health and aquatic environments. The objective of this paper was to discuss about the conventional wastewater treatment methods along with the modern treatment techniques for removal of MPs from wastewater. Conventional wastewater treatment involves the removal of suspended sediments, dissolved solids, biological degradation of organic materials, and nutrients from wastewater using a combination of physical, chemical, and biological processes. Primary method includes primary sedimentation viz., basic treatment, coagulation and sedimentation and secondary method are physical, chemical and biological factor involve for removal of MPs. In this paper about six different modern treatment techniques were examined for the removal of MPs from municipal wastewater treatment facilities to reduce the possible hazards of MPs. Some advanced methods such as membrane bioreactors, reverse osmosis, bioremediation, rapid sand filtration (RSF), electrocoagulation, magnetic separation and sol–gel method. Membrane bioreactors is one of the most efficient methods of wastewater treatment with 99.5% MPs removal. Use of dynamic membranes aided in achieving higher percentage of MPs removal. The reverse osmosis process includes pushing of water through a semi-permeable membrane rejecting the particles at the membrane but particles with size smaller than the membrane can pass through the membrane leading to 90% of removal efficiency. Recently bio-remediation is also introduced in the elimination of MPs which includes certain microbial species such as Bacillus, Paenibacillus, Stenotrophomonas and Pseudomonas species. Rapid sand filtration (RSF) is a method of passing of water through sand beds/sheets of various size sand particles and with removal is about 97.7% for MPs. Electrocoagulation method involves anodes which are broken down to release the coagulant precursors, electrolysis occurs at the cathode, and flotation is used to promote the separation of the MPs. Fibrous MPs can be removed with this process with removal efficiency of about 99%. Another advanced method is magnetic separation, which involves utilization of Fe nanoparticles, which bind to the surface of nano-plastic or MPs. The efficiency for various kind of plastics was recorded between 74 and 105%. Sol–gel method technique for extracting polymers from wastewater by causing large particle agglomerates using sol–gel induced agglomeration. Synthetic amorphous Silica (SAS) is used as agglomerates catalyst for the process. This analysis provides a comprehensive perspective of the entire MPs removal strategy and minimizing the potentially dangerous consequences of MPs in aquatic systems.

6. Chapter 5. Applications of Membrane Bioreactors for Wastewater Treatment: MPs Removal, Mechanisms and Future Perspectives

   Hanife Sari Erkan, Guleda Onkal Engin

   Abstract

   The presence of microplastics (MPs) in wastewater has significant impacts on various aspects of the wastewater treatment process. Traditional treatment plants are not equipped to remove MPs, resulting in daily discharge into the environment. Membrane bioreactor (MBR) processes have emerged as a promising strategy for removing MPs, with high removal rates seen in both real and pilot-scale wastewater treatment plants. However, the accumulation of MPs in MBRs significantly affects pollutant removal efficiency, while their presence can decrease membrane fouling due to their scouring effect. The impact of MPs on MBR systems and their microbial communities is complex and influenced by various factors, including the type and concentration of MPs, the microbial community's composition and activity, and the MBR system's operational parameters. Additional studies are necessary to evaluate the effects of different MP types and sizes on membrane fouling in real-world situations, and steps should be taken to address any negative consequences. Overall, comprehending the impact of MPs on MBR systems is critical to optimize wastewater treatment and minimizing MPs discharge into the environment.

7. Chapter 6. Microplastics Removal from Water and Wastewater Using Fungal System

   Gaushul Alam, Vijaykumar Sekar, Baranidharan Sundaram

   Abstract

   Uncontrolled and hazardously infiltrating terrestrial, aquatic, and marine systems are microplastics (MPs) and Nano-plastics (NPs). Following the last use of plastics, particularly single-use plastics, which are generated as pollutants. Depending on the size, shape, chemical composition, duration, and intensity of exposure, MPs can have variety of consequences on both aquatic and terrestrial animals. MPs, both primary and secondary, can be damaging to the environment and people's health MPs can be removed from water and wastewater treatment plants using a variety of methods, including physical, chemical, and biological process. Whereas biological techniques for the removable of microplastic have produced superior outcomes. Plastics can be broken down into tiny particles by biological processes like bacteria, fungi, and algae, which can be further broken down by other microorganisms. Fungi can also contribute to the adsorption and accumulation of MPs, which can remove from water and wastewater. In this chapter, we look at how fungi are used in the treatment of fresh water and wastewater to remove the MPs. We also look at new developments in microbial degradation, the processes at work, and the challenges and limitations of MPs and NPs. Numerous studies have documented how fungi like Aspergillus fumigatus and Penicillium chrysogenum may break down and eliminate MPs from water. Fungal biofilms have been utilized in water filtration processes to remove the MPs. Using fungus to eliminate MPs from fresh water and wastewater is an effective, efficient, and affordable technique. This approach helps to lower MPs while safeguarding the aquatic ecology, human health, and people.

8. Chapter 7. Impact of Microplastics on the Environment, Human Health and Their Removal

   Garima Singh, Sachin Kumar, Santosh Kumar Karn, Kalpana Chaudhary, Gaurav Sharma

   Abstract

   Mircoplastics (MP) are fragments of plastic that are smaller than 5 µm and are the product of the decomposition of larger plastic items or the direct discharge of smaller plastic particles, such as microbeads from personal care products, into the environment. About 320 million tonnes of plastics are generated every year that are disposed into the environment, recent studies have shown that 94% of the plastic are not properly disposed offwhich leads to major issue of MP pollution for us. MP are able to thrive in a wide variety of ecosystems, including the air, ocean, rivers, and lakes, as well as the soil. In addition, animals including human are capable of ingesting them, which may result in adverse effects for both groupsas MP are not biodegraded easily, they have the potential to remain in the environment for an extended period of time. This could have long-term consequences for the ecosystems and the creatures. Animals who consume MP experience a deficient supply of nutrients, oxidative stress, intestinal damage, and a variety of other unfavorable effects. Ingestion of MP by humans is likewise something that can hardly be denied. MP can enter the body through the gastrointestinal tract through contaminated food or by trophic transfer, the respiratory system from inhalation, or the skin via touch.The fate of MP and the consequences of their entry into the human body are little understood, despite widespread consumption of the particles. MP smaller than 10 µm in size can get into all organs, cross cell membranes, get through the blood–brain barrier, and get into the placenta, assuming that particles can be spread out in secondary tissues like the liver, muscles, and brain.The biodegradation of polyurethane is facilitated by fungi that produce hydrolases called proteases, esterases, ureases, and lipases. Breakdown of MP by bacteria. The breakdown of MP by bacteria has been the subject of numerous research. Enzyme biocatalysis depolymerizes plastic substrates into oligomers and monomers that can be recycled as raw materials to create new plastic goods or create other value-added chemicals in a circular economy. High-density polyethylene, polypropylene, polyvinyl chloride, polystyrene, and polyethylene terephthalate were effectively removed using hydrophilic bare Fe₃O₄ nanoaggregates. Fe₃O₄ at 1% of the bulk of the MP allowed for complete extraction. The wide level of pollution potential has made the MP, a hot topic of debate in the scientific community and many solutions are emerging to combat this problem. This chapter will focus to provide the latest insides of MP, distribution in the environment and inside body, effects and possible remedies.

9. Chapter 8. Use of Microalgae for the Removal of MPs as an Emerging Contaminant from Wastewaters

   Muazzez Gürgan, Çetin Yağcılar

   Abstract

   Microplastics are plastic particles with a size smaller than 5 mm. They have been identified in various environments, even in the human body. They are evaluated as emerging contaminants since they possess several health risks from DNA damage to inflammation. Therefore, there is an urgent need to remove them from environments and wastewaters. Microorganisms have been long used to remove contaminants from wastewaters. Bacteria, fungi, protists and algae were among those microorganisms to be involved in wastewater treatment. Microalgae are photosynthetic, aerobic, planktonic, freshwater or marine cyanobacteria which are easy to culture and maintain. They have been researched for their potential for wastewater treatment besides the other microorganisms. Recent studies also showed that microplastics were degraded by a well-known microalgae species Spirulina while giving severe damage to the algae. In this chapter, we evaluate the use of microalgae for the purpose of remediation of microplastics from wastewaters.

10. Chapter 9. Ecotoxicological Effects of MPs as Emerging Micropollutants: Examination of Biomarkers, Current State, and Future Perspectives

    Emine Keleş Özgenç, Enes Özgenç, Abdullah Hüseyin Dönmez, Günay Yıldız Töre

    Abstract

    Known ubiquitously, including in terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems, microplastics (MPs) are pollutants of concern and their harmful effects pose a growing threat. MPs, especially when considered together with increasing pollution and destructions in the ecosystem, cause deterioration of ecosystem functions and structure, raising concerns about possible negative effects on the environment. The environmental effects of microplastics, which increase especially rapidly in different environmental conditions, have been still discussed by many researchers today. While studies generally focus on the increase and effects of MPS in the oceans and seas, there is still a knowledge gap regarding its status and effects in freshwater and soil. Therefore, it is very important to evaluate the effects of MPs on both terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems. The toxic compounds used as additives in the formation of microplastics absorb the pollutants in the environment during their stay in the land and aquatic environment and then may cause the development of microorganisms in these areas or threaten the environmental media by being directly assimilated by organisms. Therefore, this situation creates an ever-increasing danger and risk potential for ecosystems, and especially their sustainable presence on land and water creates negative effects on human health and the ecosystem. So, in this context, this book section aims to define MPs pollution in terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems and to determine the ecotoxicological effects observed in ecosystems. In addition to the presence and potential effects of microplastics in soil and clean waters, their effects on human-food security, animal, ecosystem, and human health will be focused on. At the same time, biomarkers of microplastics that cause oxidative stress and damage to microalgae will be investigated. In addition, it is also aimed to present the current challenges and perspectives for future research in the context of microplastics and their effects, which are also known as worrisome.

11. Chapter 10. Micro/Nanoplastic Toxicity on Aquatic Life: Fate, Effect and Remediation Strategy Treatment: A Review on Possible Solution Scenarios for Bioremediation in Real Wastewater Treatment

    Enes Özgenç, Günay Yıldız Töre, Saffet Çelik

    Abstract

    Biodiversity conservation, ecosystem, and public health are negatively triggered by plastics used in all areas of modern life. Micro and nano plastics, one of them, are widely occurring pollutants that have great interest. The increasing levels of micro-nano plastics such as polyethylene (PE), polypropylene (PP), polyvinylchloride (PVC), and polyethylene terephthalate (PET) in the ecosystem negatively affecting environmental health and living organisms globally because of undeniable prevalence in the air, soil and especially aquatic ecosystem. Microplastics, which have very slow decomposition rates, stay and accumulate for a long time in the environment where they can interact with organisms. Wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) are considered point sources of micro-nano plastics released into the environment and the last line of defense that creates a barrier between microplastics and the environment. Although microbial species such as bacteria, algae, and fungi can break down plastic, they can not completely mineralize plastic due to various factors such as enzymatic mechanisms, substrates and co-substrates concentration, temperature, pH, and oxidative stress. Therefore, the underlying mechanism of micro-nano plastic formation and specifying the factors affecting their transport, distribution, and deterioration is very important. So far, no specific treatment technology has been developed to specifically remove MPs and NPs from wastewater and sludge, apart from existing conventional treatment techniques. So, the main purpose of this book chapter focusing on current evidence of microplastic accumulation in the aquatic environment and soil, we will emphasize the harmful effects, fate, and remediation processes of existing and potential microplastic types on living things to protect the environment and life on earth. Also, to fill the information gap, recent research innovations regarding the development of purification technologies targeting MPs and NPs will be discussed.

12. Chapter 11. A State-of-Art Review on Toxicity and Effect of Micro/Nano Plastic on Water Life: Current Statistics and Bioremediation Strategy

    Himanshi Chaudhary, Shubha Dwivedi, Deepa Sharma, Naveen Dwivedi

    Abstract

    Urbanization and industrialization increases with the increase of population and its demand for goods and services. Use of plastics is very common in our daily life. We all live in the world where people are in practice to utilized plastics bags, bottles, and various items at very fast speed. A study by United Nations in 2022 showed that every year 400 million tonnes of plastic waste produced by humans. As an approx, in year 2021, Five hundred eighty three billion plastic bottles were produced. As per the earth day network study, as estimation, 5 trillion plastic bags were used. Plastic items are made up of many semi-synthetic and synthetic organic polymers which are flexible in nature and gave any shape. Easy production, good constancy and versatility, plastic items have wide range of products. Plastics can be transported from terrestrial ecologies to water ecosystems due to the various physical properties like resistance and hydrophobicity. It is found in all kind of water bodies. Nanoplastics (NPs, 1–1000 nm) and microplastics (MPs, 1 μm to 5 mm) are formed due to biological degradation and photochemical oxidation. This chapter presented a state-of-the-art overview of up-to-date research on nanoplastics and will critically scrutinize the sources of the formation, immigration and deposition of micro/nano plastics in the aquatic system. This chapter also discussed the toxicity of nano/micro plastics and its exposure to human as well aquatic life. Furthermore, this chapter also provides the prevailing remediation practices and future viewpoints for these fine plastics particles.

13. Chapter 12. The Impact of Microplastics on the Environment and Human (Living) Health

    Hamdi Temel

    Abstract

    In countless products we use every day, such as glasses, plastic bottles, forks, spoons, containers made of artificial foam, storage containers, toys, stationery products; It contains substances such as bisphenol A, phthalates, azo dyes, heavy metals, and penetrates food and liquids at high temperatures. These items are; triode reduces the production of growth hormone, estrogen and testosterone hormones. These raw materials in plastics cause obesity, diabetes, asthma, cardiovascular diseases and liver damage. It increases the risk of breast and prostate cancer. Microplastic, which were first defined as plastics smaller than 5 mm, defined by Thompson in 2004, continue to affect our lives every day. The sources of microplastics are quite numerous and diverse. The first thing that comes to our minds is the products such as shampoos, toothpastes, sun creams, face cleaning that we use as personal care and cosmetics. Later, microplastic may consist of sources such as fluids in special medical applications, oil and gas research, plastic industry, plastic containers used in homes, synthetic textile products, plastic wastes. Microplastics can pass into our bodies from the water we eat, sea and other food products we eat, skin contact or respiratory tract. According to scientific articles; Microplastic was detected in the lungs, human blood and feces and placements of infants. Sharme and Chatterje explained a shocking result in their 2017 work. When microplastic is taken into the body, they reported that they could create mutations in human chromosomes that may cause infertility, obesity and even cancer. In the other study, studies in which immune release was induced in cells interacting with plastic parts and inflammation occurred in parallel. In another study, it was stated that microplastic may interact with different organisms after translocation and may cause inflammation due to very small dimensions. Microplastic may accumulate on the skin and cause some dermal problems. In addition, it may cause some inflammation in our lungs by respiratory tract from the atmosphere. In addition, microoplastic can create microbial life with microorganisms that may enter the body, disrupt the hormonal structure, affect the deterioration of brain development and cause problems in sexual development. In this section, the effects of microplastic on environment and human health are examined and solutions are presented.