NanoCarbon: A Wonder Material for Energy Applications

Table of Contents

1. Frontmatter

2. Introduction to Nanocarbon

   Shivaraj Dhanushree, Chandrasekaran Nithya

   Abstract

   The field of nanomaterials has received much attention in recent years for its cutting-edge applications in areas such as energy, environmental, and life sciences. Owing to their distinct physio-chemical characteristics, nanocarbon with various dimensions such as 0D fullerenes and carbon-dots, 1D graphene nanoribbons and carbon nanotubes, 2D graphene oxides and graphene, and 3D nanodiamonds have gained a great deal of interest for applications in photovoltaics, optoelectronics, and electronics and as well as bio-imaging, sensing, and therapeutics. More interestingly graphene and CNTs offer unique structural properties like flexibility, mechanical stability, and electrical and thermal stability which create a revolution in the field of energy storage and sensing applications. This chapter systematically summarizes the synthesis of nanocarbons with distinct morphology and discusses how the synthesis methods influence the structural properties of nanocarbons. Further, the challenges in the synthesis methods and future perspectives of nanocarbons also discussed.

3. Synthesis and Characterizations of Nanocarbon

   Diego R. Lobato-Peralta, Alejandro Ayala-Cortés, Estefanía Duque-Brito, Patrick U. Okoye

   Abstract

   Nanocarbons have become increasingly relevant in the field of energy storage due to their diverse properties, which make them suitable for use in a variety of devices such as batteries, supercapacitors, and fuel cells. The properties of carbon-based materials are heavily influenced by the choice of precursor, process conditions, and reactor type used in their synthesis. Thus, understanding the interplay between these factors is crucial for designing carbon-based energy storage materials with tailored performance characteristics. This chapter provides an overview of the latest and traditional technologies used to obtain nanocarbon materials, including innovative approaches like reactors that use concentrated solar energy and traditional methods like tubular furnaces. We also outline the common methodologies used to synthesize diverse nanocarbon materials, such as carbon nanotubes, graphene, and nanoporous carbons. Furthermore, this chapter discusses the techniques commonly used to characterize nanocarbon materials and evaluate their properties. These techniques include surface area measurement, determination of chemical composition, evaluation of the degree of order/disorder, identification of functional groups on the surface, and electrochemical characterization for energy storage applications, among others.

4. Electrochemical Properties of Nanocarbon

   Shilpa Pande, Bidhan Pandit, Shoyebmohamad F. Shaikh, Mohd Ubaidullah

   Abstract

   Carbon materials are essential for a wide variety of electrochemical utilisations due to the fact that their electron-transfer and charge-storage capabilities may be tuned. In order to rationally build various high-performance electrochemical devices, it is essential to engage in careful structural manipulation of carbon in order to control its chemical, electrical, and crystalline properties. This study focuses on three different forms of carbon nanomaterials that have recently gained interest in the field of electrochemistry. These are carbon nanofibres, carbon nanotubes (CNTs), and graphene. The focus of this chapter is on the ways in which the structural differences among these carbon nanomaterials influence the electrochemical activities they exhibit. In this Chapter, after providing a brief summary of the recent developments in the fields of Nano carbon and nanofibres, Nano carbon and composites for energy applications, and the future perspectives of Nano carbon electrochemistry, this study will move on to discuss these topics in more depth. Focus is placed on delineating the ways in which the electrical structure of carbon affects the electrochemical activity of the element. Notice some of the modification approaches applicable to over one utilization area through the examination of various electrochemical devices; as a result, structural manipulation approaches utilized in one class of electrochemical devices can be extended to other types of electrochemical devices.

5. Tunability of Electrochemical Properties of Nanocarbon for Sustainable Energy

   Kavitha Mulackampilly Joseph, Maliha Marzana, Ayush Raut, Vesselin Shanov

   Abstract

   As the world transitions from fossil fuels towards more sustainable renewable energy options, carbon-based materials play a significant role due to the growing demand for portable energy devices (for wearable electronics) and heavy-duty energy sources (for power stations, long-distance transportation and electric vehicles). Current, commercially available carbon-based energy materials are inadequate to meet the energy requirements of a fossil fuel-free energy scenario. So, academia and industry are shifting their interest toward advanced materials like nanocarbons, including graphene, carbon nanotube, and fullerene for energy application. They all exhibit extraordinary properties due to their nanoscale dimensions and unique morphology. The tunability of physical, chemical, and electrochemical properties of nanocarbon are their significant features that make them ideal candidates for energy storage and conversion. Advanced tailoring approaches applicable to nanocarbons for energy storage applications are discussed here in detail. They include (a) heteroatom doping, (b) design of hierarchically structured nanocarbon, (c) construction of ionic channels within the material, and (d) growing metal compound-based nanoparticles on nanocarbon. Further, strategies like grafting fullerenes, patterning CNT films, and compositing graphene with CNT and PANI are explored in energy conversion applications like photovoltaics. The discussed electrocatalysis employs tuning methods like nanocarbon doping, porous templating, defect engineering, electrodeposition, and electro-reduction. On the other hand, fuel cell technology adopts tailoring methods like nanocarbon doping, porosity engineering, and graphitization metamorphosis. In summary, this study presents practical strategies that can be adopted for fabricating efficient and high-performance, next-generation energy conversion and storage devices using tailored nanocarbons.

6. One-Dimensional Carbon for Electrocatalytic Activities

   Niharika Maley, Pratik Patel, Felipe M. de Souza, Ram K. Gupta

   Abstract

   One-dimensional (1D) carbon structures like carbon nanotubes (CNTs), carbon nanofibers (CNFs), and graphene ribbons, for instance, have drawn a lot of interest in the field of electrocatalysis because of their distinctive characteristics and superior electrochemical performance. The purpose of this chapter is to give a general review of the electrocatalytic properties of 1D carbon nanomaterials and their prospective uses in a range of energy conversion and storage technologies. The main attractive properties of these carbon structures are based on their satisfactory electrocatalytic activity for several processes due to their high surface area as well as conductivity. The first section provides a brief overview of some of the main theoretical aspects related to technologies such as water-splitting electrolyzers, fuel cells, and metal-air batteries. From that, some of their main electrochemical reactions such as hydrogen evolution reaction (HER), oxygen evolution reaction (OER), oxygen reduction reaction (ORR), and hydrogen oxidation reaction (HOR) are discussed based on the application of their respective electrochemical devices. The second section provides some of the main techniques and approaches utilized for the synthesis of 1D carbon-based materials while providing some of their main advantages and drawbacks. The third section provides an in-depth discussion of some of the most recent works from the literature under the scope of the electrochemical performance of 1D carbon-based materials and the main phenomena that justify their use in such technologies. Lastly, an outlook and future aspects regarding the main advantages and current hurdles on the use of 1D carbon-based material are provided to elucidate some of the main issues for the readers while providing some insight for future experimental design.

7. Graphene as a Metal-Free Catalyst—Recent Case Studies

   T. Stach, A. Seif, U. Burghaus

   Abstract

   One can encounter some skepticism about clean, non-functionalized, defect-free graphene being a catalyst for gas-surface reactions at ultra-high vacuum (UHV). We will describe a few successful literature examples, focusing on our own recent work, to illustrate that graphene indeed can act as a catalyst. Experimental and theoretical results will be described. Our own work concerns the decomposition of small sulfur compounds (SO₂, H₂S, thiophene) on epitaxial graphene characterized in UHV by surface science experimental and theoretical techniques. Desulfurization catalysis has some overlap with energy-related applications. Other recent works from other groups concern the surface chemistry of organic compounds, as well as the dissociation of hydrogen on corrugated graphene. This book chapter does not provide a comprehensive review, however. A few liquid phase studies, work on powder samples, electrochemistry, and photoelectrochemistry works are mentioned but not discussed in any detail. The case studies focus on defect-free and clean (not functionalized), epitaxial graphene as the catalyst studied at UHV.

8. 3D Graphene: A Nanocarbon Innovation in Electrochemical Sensor Technology

   Sahar Foroughirad, Behnaz Ranjbar, Zahra Ranjbar

   Abstract

   Nanocarbons, a diverse category of nanoscale carbon materials, have transformed scientific and industrial fields. Graphene, a remarkable nanocarbon, stands out due to its exceptional mechanical, electrical, and thermal properties. Three-dimensional (3D) graphene, with greater surface area and conductivity than its 2D counterpart, has gained recent popularity. In electrochemical sensing, the key component is the electrochemical electrode, driving chemical reduction reactions and generating signals. 3D graphene-based structures, featuring tailored meso- and micropores, offer interconnected hierarchical architectures, high surface area, intrinsic electrical conductivity, and a high signal-to-noise ratio, making them ideal electrochemical sensors. Two main fabrication strategies produce 3D graphene: 3D graphene aerogels and 3D graphene foams, each suited for different applications. Graphene foam's interconnected structure finds uses in electrochemical biosensors, adsorbents, supercapacitors, strain sensors, flexible electronics, space vehicle protection, EMI and microwave shielding, dampers, thermal interface materials, and flame-resistant materials. Incorporating nanomaterials like magnetite, doped elements, carbon nanotubes, and MXenes enhances these graphene-based structures. This chapter explores modification methods and applications of various 3D graphene-based structures as electrochemical sensors and offers insights into future synthesis and application prospects.

9. Nanocomposites of Carbon for Dye-Sensitized Solar Cell Applications

   Kulandai Velu Ramanathan, Vishnu Vardhana Chary, Shantikumar V. Nair, Dhamodaran Santhanagopalan

   Abstract

   Efforts to make low-cost photovoltaic devices are a major part of today’s energy conversion research. The abundant, cheap, highly conductive, and easy-to-tune nature of carbon allotropes makes carbon-based nanocomposites more attractive to use in dye-sensitized solar cells (DSSC). DSSCs are photo electrocatalytic solar cells that have a device architecture involving a nanoparticular electron transport layer (ETL) which accommodates an adequate quantity of photo-active dye molecules in their mesoporous morphology where the major transport is diffusion-based. Accession of carbon-based nanocomposite materials in the ETL matrix is well-researched as they enable linear electron transport pathways. Carbon-based nanocomposites are known for their conductivity and tunability in the regimes of work function and catalytic activities. Foremost research involves nanocomposites of carbon allotropes as a replacement for the high-cost traditional Platinum counter electrode used in DSSC devices for effective regeneration. In this chapter, we will provide insight into the application of various carbonaceous nanocomposite materials both in the photo-anode and counter electrodes of a DSSC.

10. Nanocarbon for Electrocatalysis

    Yingna Chang, Tian Zhang, Guoxin Zhang

    Abstract

    Electrocatalytic utilization of renewable energy is vital for realizing carbon neutralization of our globe and sustainably fueling human society. Heteroatom-doped carbon nanomaterials (CNMs) have received considerable interest in recent years due to their potential application as electrocatalysts in various renewable energy conversion and storage technologies such as fuel cells, water splitting, nitrogen fixation, etc. This review presents an overview of the recent progress in the tunable synthesis, characterizations, and electrocatalytic properties of heteroatom-doped CNMs. The focus will be laid on the effects of different heteroatoms, the synergy of multiple doping elements, and treating conditions on the electrocatalytic performance of CNMs towards fundamental electrocatalytic reactions including oxygen reduction reaction (ORR), oxygen evolution reaction (OER), hydrogen evolution reaction (HER), CO₂ reduction reactions (CO₂RR), nitrogen fixation reactions (NRR), etc. Moreover, the review highlights the current understanding of the underlying mechanisms of heteroatom doping on the electrocatalytic properties of CNMs. Finally, the opportunities and challenges associated with the applications of heteroatom-doped CNMs as electrocatalysts in practical energy conversion devices are discussed.

11. Graphene-Based Electrocatalysts

    Touba Rezaee Adriani, Ali A. Ensafi

    Abstract

    The utilization of electrochemical conversion and energy storage has become feasible in tackling the growing concerns related to energy and environment. One of the primary challenges in the practical application of these devices is the sluggishness of their reaction kinetics. There should be a heightened focus on examining electrocatalysts that exhibit superior efficiency and enhance kinetics rate. Graphene is one of the most extensively researched electrode materials for electrochemical applications among advanced nanomaterials. The incorporation of graphene with nanomaterials can make it easier to take advantage of the material's inherent features. Particularly, graphene and graphene derivatives have been utilized as templates for the synthesis of numerous noble-metal nanocomposites, which have demonstrated exceptional performance in electrocatalytic applications, such as the sensors, ORR, OER, HER, CO₂RR, SCs, and so on. In this chapter, we undertake an examination of the progress made in the development of graphene and its composites-based electrodes for the electrocatalytic field.

12. Electrocatalytic Properties of Fullerene-Based Materials

    Emilia Grądzka

    Abstract

    This chapter provides a comprehensive review of research related to the electrocatalytic properties of fullerenes and their derivatives. The paper begins with general information about problems that occur in electrocatalysis and its role in the modern technology of clean energy sources. Next, general information about fullerenes and their derivatives is presented. Additionally, their role in many applications is mentioned. An electrocatalytic area is noticed. Thus, chemical processes based on the electrocatalytic properties of fullerenes, and their derivatives are described. The electrocatalytic activity of materials such as doped, exo-, and endohedral fullerenes is described. Additionally, fullerene-like materials or materials formed from fullerenes are mentioned. Composite materials of fullerenes and carbon nanostructures, metal–organic frameworks, metal oxides, metallic nanoparticles, or bimetallic systems are discussed. Their electrocatalytic performance is compared to commercial catalysts used in these systems. To date, many different catalytic systems have been studied, and this scientific area is very broad. Recently, carbon nanomaterials have been studied intensively due to their unusual chemical and physical properties. Among them, special attention has also been paid to fullerenes as pure carbon allotropes with unique structures and properties.

13. Nanocomposites of Carbon as Electrocatalyst

    Veena Mounasamy, Ponpandian Nagamony

    Abstract

    Earnest efforts in developing electrochemical energy production, conversion, and storage devices to meet the energy requirements globally routes to the research and development of highly efficient and sustainable electrocatalysts. The escalated physicochemical characteristics and ease in tunability of carbon material and its allotropes (viz., graphene, graphite, carbon nanotubes, carbon quantum dots, nano diamond, etc.,) facilitated to exercise of its remarkable footprints in the electrocatalytic applications. Due to the trade-off between its conductivity and intrinsic activity, carbon materials are often combined with several metal oxides, sulfides, nitrides, or carbides and form their respective composites. In addition to their enhanced conductivity and stability, carbon nanocomposites will exhibit higher catalytic activity due to their higher surface-to-volume ratio which is crucial for an electrocatalyst. In this chapter, several carbon nanocomposites electrocatalysts used in water splitting (OER, ORR and HER), fuel cells (methanol and proton exchange membrane) and air batteries (lithium and zinc) applications are majorly discussed.

14. Graphene-Based Fuel Cells

    Suba Lakshmi Madaswamy, N. Veni Keertheeswari, Ragupathy Dhanusuraman

    Abstract

    Graphene has received much attention in energy conversion devices due to its remarkable properties such as unique thermal, mechanical, electronic, and chemical properties. Also, graphene has an isolated layer of carbon hexagons with Sp² hybridized C–C bonds with electron clouds. Thin flakes made of a few layers of carbon atoms, such as mono-layer graphene, can be very significant from an engineering perspective due to their intriguing structural and physical properties as well as their potential for exciting technology applications. Hybrid structures based on graphene have been used to create a wide range of effective and long-lasting fuel cell energy systems. Graphene in fuel cell technology exhibits excellent catalytic performance in potential applications of fuel cell devices. This chapter focuses on the fuel cell device used by graphene and how graphene is used in contemporary fuel cell technology, including in electrodes.

15. Nanocomposites of Carbon for Fuel Cells

    James F. Amaku, Raymond Taziwa

    Abstract

    A vast number of resources have been invested into the design of intermediate and low-temperature fuel cells such as the microbial fuel cell (MFC), proton exchange membrane fuel cell (PEMFC), direct borohydride fuel cell (DBFC), and direct methanol fuel cell (DMFC). This class of fuel cells has displayed varied limitations owing to their respective principal components. Hence, the need to investigate different materials and nanocomposites with the capacity to enhance the performance of fuel cells. Due to the exceptional properties of carbon molecules in their nano state, nanocarbons have gained global attention as catalyst supports in fuel cell applications. The triumphs and challenges of the application of carbon nanotube-based electrocatalysts in fuel cell technology have been presented in this book chapter. This chapter will review the application of carbon-based nanocomposite materials in the intermediate processes of MFC, PEMFC, DBFC, DMFC, and other recently designed fuel cells. Comparative study of the mechanism of action, applications, yield, merits, and demerits of various carbon-based nanocomposite materials will be assessed. Recent advances in important cutting-edge synthetic routes will be assessed. The sole purpose of this work is to act as a substantive reference for the application of carbon-based nanocomposite fuel cell energy generation reviews.

16. Carbon Nanomaterials as One of the Options for Hydrogen Storage

    B. Viswanathan

    Abstract

    For the Hydrogen economy, cost-effective and safe storage of hydrogen assumes importance. Among the various modes of storage, solid-state storage has definite advantages for mobile and stationary applications. However, among the probable solid-state materials, the desired levels of storage (~6 Weight %) can be possible in carbon materials suitably modified with activation centers. A variety of modifications of carbon materials have been examined for hydrogen storage. However, the search has to continue till the desired levels of storage under ambient conditions are achieved.

17. Nanocarbon as Catalyst Support for Fuel Hydrogen Generation by Hydrolysis of Sodium Borohydride

    Iterlandes M. Junior, Gabriel H. Sperandio, Renata P. L. Moreira, Tiago A. Silva

    Abstract

    Climate change-related disasters have occurred worldwide due to the exhaustive use of fossil fuels. One promising fuel alternative is hydrogen (H₂), which has a high energy potential (1.42 × 10⁸ J Kg⁻¹) and is considered the future fuel. However, its storage processes, such as gas compression or liquefaction are still unfeasible due to its low density and boiling point. Inorganic hydrides such as sodium borohydride (NaBH₄) can be used as storage systems, but the hydrolysis reaction needed to release H₂ is slow and requires catalysts. In this sense, several recent research efforts have been made to propose heterogeneous catalysts based on metallic nanoparticles anchored in different support materials for the generation of H₂. Special emphasis can be given to nanocarbon as a support for nanostructured catalysts, such as carbon nanotubes, graphene, and biochar obtained from biomass, considering the availability of these materials, high surface area, and versatility in terms of functionalization. This book chapter provides a review of recent advances in the use of metallic nanocatalysts supported by nanocarbon to generate fuel hydrogen from NaBH₄, detailing aspects related to the synthesis, characterization, and application of the materials. Future perspectives on the use of these catalysis systems are also addressed.

18. Exploiting the Potential of Carbon Nanotubes and Nanofluids to Boost Efficiency in Solar Applications

    Amir M. Alinia, M. Sheikholeslami

    Abstract

    This work comprehensively reviews recent advancements and applications of Carbon Nanotube (CNT) nanofluids, specifically concentrating on their integration into energy harvesting systems, particularly solar collectors. The effectiveness of collectors. Utilizing CNT nanofluids is assessed, accompanied by exploring preparation methods and factors influencing thermal conductivity and optical properties. Also mentioned are the drawbacks and potential directions for using CNT nanofluids in thermal collectors. CNTs, possessing the highest thermal conductivity among known nanoparticles, offer promising potential as heat transfer fluids when dispersed into various base fluids, creating CNT nanofluids. However, maintaining prepared CNT nanofluids’ homogeneity and sustained durability poses a significant challenge. The paper provides a detailed study of the preparation techniques and reported stability periods of stationary CNT nanofluids. Various treatment methods, including chemical and physical treatments, are systematically analyzed, offering insights into overcoming stability challenges and future directions. The paper advocates for a balanced combination of techniques to achieve CNT dispersion without excessive treatment. Methods for analyzing nanofluid stability are also surveyed, emphasizing the need for cost-effective and rapid stability prediction methods.

19. Recent Advancements in Conducting Polymers for Biomedical Sensors

    Aniruddh Mehra, Mayankkumar Chaudhary, Filipe De Souza, Ram K. Gupta

    Abstract

    The healthcare system heavily relies on quantitative analyses of samples, including blood work, laboratory tests, vitals, imaging, health risk assessments, and health records. However, trends in point-of-care diagnostics and accurate, real-time monitoring of patient’s physiological parameters must meet demands to cut healthcare expenditures, optimize treatment efficiency, and ameliorate patient outcomes. One revolutionary solution in biomedical technology and diagnostic bio-instrumentation is the biomedical sensor, an analytical device capable of transducing biological signals into electrical signals to detect and quantify chemical substances or biological molecules with robust sensitivity. Conducting polymers (CPs) are a pivotal advancement in biosensor design due to their biocompatibility, inherent and tunable electroactivity, selectivity, and inexpensive synthesis. CP-based biosensors pave the way for minimally invasive, continuous patient monitoring, wearable, flexible, and implantable applications, personalized diagnoses, point-of-care treatments, early disease interventions, and affordable devices for underserved populations. This comprehensive review will cover different types, and characterization of conducting polymers commonly used in biosensors, followed by an introduction to types of biosensors, the requirements and challenges of biomedical sensor design, and recent advancements in the field, the lattermost focusing on the benefits of employing conducting polymers. Finally, CP-based biosensors for pathogen, DNA, protein, and early disease detection are reviewed.