Proceedings of 2nd World Conference on Byproducts of Palms and Their Applications

Date palms belong to the family of Arecaceae with several species. In the current study, density and compression strength of the wood from two date palm trunks (Phoenix dactylifera) and their relation to wood structure as well as strength properties of vascular bundles were investigated. Results showed that—different from most other palms—there is no significant difference in density across the trunk diameter and along the trunk length. Wood compression strength (MOR) parallel to fiber direction correlates significantly with wood density, but it does not correlate with a share of vascular bundles on the sample cross-section. The reason is the weak parenchyma which allows buckling of the vascular bundles and shear failures along the interface parenchyma and vascular bundle. MOE and MOR of single vascular bundles are much higher compared to the overall wood. But this reinforcement has its limits due to the much weaker parenchyma. The results contribute to developing a mechanical model to describe material characteristics based on the structure and density of the palm wood.

Due to shorter rotation cycles compared to other palm species, oil palm wood has lower densities, a wider density range (150–600 kg/m³ dry), and a high moisture content. The moisture content varies, reversely to the density, with the highest values of up to 600% at the trunk core, especially at the top of the palm trunk. Kiln drying material with such low density, very high moisture content and high sugar and starch content is difficult and often produces drying defects such as cell collapse, cracks, and mold. Mechanical dewatering of wet oil palm lumber in an unheated double roller press reduces the water content and generates sugar-containing pressed water (sap) that could be used as a source for biochemicals. The share of mechanically removed water varied from 1 to >54% of the total water removed from wet to dry state (at 20 °C, 65% rh). Center boards from the top of the trunk had the highest dewatering rates while boards from the periphery at the bottom of the trunk (high density, low water content) showed the lowest.

Oil palm timber used for load-bearing purposes such as glued laminated timber (GLT) needs to have clearly defined strength and stiffness values. Because the wood density (which correlates to elastomechanical properties) varies significantly within oil palm trunks, oil palm boards must be graded based on their density across the board width in order to homogenize and improve the properties of the final product. In this preliminary investigation, 20 beams of combined GLT with four different types of graded lamellas were produced and tested in a 4-point-bending test. The results show a correlation between density and bending strength. The characteristic strength values are achieved, and the elastomechanical properties of beams based on lamellas that are ripped lengthwise and edge-glued according to their density are higher compared to beams based on lamellas cut only according to their geometry. A correlation between bending strength and local MOE is determined. In summary, lengthwise ripping of oil palm boards according to their density across the board width as well as a grading according to density limit values is shown to improve the properties of combined GLT made from oil palm timber for load-bearing purposes.

Oil palm frond (OPF) can act as an alternative source for wood-based industry. OPF was an agricultural waste, and it is producing millions of tons of oil palm biomass every year. The oil palm frond was obtained from oil palm plantation UiTM Pahang. The frond part of the oil palm was separated for further processes. The urea–formaldehyde (UF) resin was used as a binder. The particleboard samples were then tested for their mechanical and dimensional stability of OPF by using different resin content (8, 10, and 12%) and board density (500, 600, and 700 kgm⁻³). The tests on the mechanical properties include Modulus of Elasticity (MOE), Modulus of Rupture (MOR) and Internal Bonding (IB). The dimensional stability tests are thickness swelling (TS) and water absorption (WA). The results showed that the higher density board and resin content seem to have a better result in mechanical properties and dimensional stability. Statistical analysis indicated there was significant differences between boards made from different resin content except for thickness swelling (TS). The TS value exceeded the maximum set value (12%), but highly significant differences were observed in the density. Boards with a density of 700 kgm⁻³ and 12% of resin content achieved the minimum requirement based on the JIS A5908:2003 standard type 8 for mechanical properties. Overall, the particleboard from oil palm fronds is suitable to be used as an alternative resource to overcome the shortage of raw material in the furniture and wood industry.

Coconut palm is mainly cultivated in coastal areas of tropical countries. The husk is abundantly available in many places as cheap residue from coconut processing, which is considered to produce coconut fiber. This coconut fiber is explored for new usage and adopted for various engineering applications. It is expected that this fiber would act as an excellent raw material for panel product such as fiberboard with value added. This paper investigates the impact response of fiberboard made from coconut fiber. Three types of natural binder were used which included corn starch (CS), tapioca starch (TS), and rice flour (RF). The coconut fiberboards (CFB) were coded as CFBCS, CFBTS, and CFBRF based natural binder which were prepared using hot compression machine with the temperature of 150 °C for 1 h holding time. The impact behavior of coconut fiberboard was investigated using a drop-weight impact tower at three different energy levels of 5, 10, and 15 J as according to ASTM D7136. The results showed that CFBCS has higher energy absorbed and impact strength followed by CFBTS and CFBRF. For instant, at 15 J of impact energy, the CFBCS possesses 1.51 J energy absorbed and 11.54 kJ/m² impact strength, which is 128.80% and 132.66% higher compared to CFBRF, respectively. Among all the natural binders, the corn starch is the best binder due to hydroxyl groups contain in corn starch, which form strong bonds with the coconut fibers. Thus, eventually enhanced impact properties of CFBRF. The optical analysis showed that the coconut fiberboard cracked and chirped during the impact test. Therefore, the formulation of coconut fiber with corn starch could be used for fiberboard in furniture industries.

The oil palm biomass is challenging in term of its mass utilization and its compatibility to various processing. The use of alkali treatment on wood fibers could modify the surface, thus making it more suitable for processing with polypropylene. This work analyses the impact of alkali treatment on the bulk density and its impact on the mechanical properties of wood-plastic composite (WPC). Fibers used were treated at 3 concentration level of sodium hydroxide: NaOH (1, 2, and 4%) and compared to control (no treatment). Two fiber loading 10 and 50 wt.% were blended representing high matrix and high fiber environment respectively. The materials were blended at 180 °C for 40 min and palletized. The test samples were pressed at 1000psi with temperature of 195 °C for 6 min. Test samples were prepared and tested in accordance to relevant ASTM procedure. Bulk density of fibers indicated an inversely proportional relation to concentration of alkali. Mechanical and physical properties showed better performance after alkali treatment and the impact was varied according to the loading factor of the composite. While tensile and flexural modulus of rupture plus elongation was at higher value for 10 wt.% fiber loading, the composite with 50 wt.% fibers exhibited higher modulus of elasticity and impact performance. The trend of 10 wt.% loading was either V shaped or inverted V shaped for mechanical properties indicating the impact at 2% modification being strongest. The 50 wt.% fiber loaded WPC have upward trend throughout the mechanical properties proportional to the alkali content. Capillary action of fiber in void created in higher loaded composite explained the lower absorption for 10 wt.% loaded WPC. Composites using treated fiber are a good option for future development as it could be further optimized using varying processing parameters such as temperature, pressure, time, loading factor, and coupling agents addition.

Over the last few decades, researchers have aggressively investigated natural fibre reinforced polymer composites for replacing conventional synthetic polymeric materials in a variety of applications, including automotive, medical, agricultural, thermal management, and building insulation. In this study, modelling and simulation technique was used to predict the tensile properties of Unidirectional Glass/Epoxy and Arenga Pinnata/Epoxy Hybrid Composite Laminate. The effect of hybridization on the tensile strength of FRP composites was evaluated using ANSYS software based on maximum stress failure criteria. A symmetric finite element modelling of [±θ_G/±θ_AP]_S hybrid FRP composites were analysed and compared to the properties of [θ_G/−θ_G]_2S and [θ_AP/−θ_AP]_2S. Glass/Epoxy and hybrid with Arenga Pinnata/Epoxy natural fibre laminates subjected to uniaxial tension were simulated. The stress of the hybrid laminate composite of natural fibre from Arenga Pinnata yielded a moderate stress value, indicating that the composite was reliable. The maximum tensile stress of fibre laminates with the orientation of 0°, 15°, 30°, 45°, 60°, 75°, and 90° degrees were evaluated. Glass Fibre Reinforced Polymer (GFRP) fibres had the maximum uniaxial tension stress of 342.56 MPa at 0° and 78.38 MPa 30° ply orientation, while both fibres had the lowest uniaxial tension stress of 9.25 MPa and 7.20 MPa, at 90° ply orientation, respectively. Meanwhile, the hybrid of GFRP and Arenga Pinnata Fibre Reinforced Polymer (APFRP) had a tensile property of 264.95 MPa at 0° and 4.53 MPa at 90°. This study contributes new knowledge in predicting the tensile strength value using modelling and simulation techniques.

Bending in applied mechanics characterises the action of a slender structural structure subjected to an external load applied perpendicular to the element's longitudinal axis. Bending stress deformation behaviour and flexural properties of fibre reinforced polymer (FRP) composite materials are important in designing structures and mechanical components. The bending or flexural properties of FRP composite materials depend on the type of fibre and the fibre sequence architecture. In this study, bending stress and deformation analysis were determined using modelling and simulation techniques. The dimension of the specimen was set up based on ASTM standard D7264. The effect of fibre types, i.e., Arenga Pinnata and Glass, on flexural stress–strain behaviour, the effect of layer sequence on maximum bending stress and deformation properties, and the effect of 25 wt.% nanosilica inclusion in the epoxy were simulated and calculated. ANSYS Software was used to simulate the symmetric [θ/−θ/0/0]_s laminate sequence. The effects of nanosilica and fibre orientation of 0°, 15°, 30°, 45°, 60°, 75°, and 90° on flexural behaviour were investigated. From this study, it was found that the 45° unidirectional laminate exhibited the highest flexural strength. The maximum bending stress of 25APFRP was 90.7 MPa with a maximum deflection of 4.447 mm. The presence of 5 wt.% nanosilica improved the bending properties of Arenga Pinnata with a maximum bending stress of 94.1 MPa and 4.486 mm maximum deflection. It can be concluded that FRP composites made of Arenga Pinnata FRP composites have high flexural properties when compared to conventional Glass FRP composites.

Roofing constitutes a major cost item in building construction. The relatively high cost of conventional roofing materials is a factor militating against affordable housing provision in sub-Saharan Africa. This study examined the physico-mechanical properties and weathering performance of coconut husk fibre-reinforced composite roofing tiles produced with selected cement admixtures. Corrugated (40 × 30 × 0.6 cm³) and flat (16 × 30 × 0.6 cm³) roofing tiles were produced using Rice Husk Ash (ASH), Chicken Eggshell Ash (CESA) and Calcium Carbide Waste (CCW) as a partial replacement for Portland Limestone Cement (PLC). Formulations used were 4% coconut fibres by mass of cement, 0.4 for cement–water ratio and 1:2 for cement–sand. Cement admixtures were formulated at 90%PLC + 10%RHA; 90%PLC + 10%CESA; and 95%PLC + 5%CCW. All these were thoroughly mixed together and poured into a mould and covered with a polythene sheet. Composites were demoulded after 24 h, immersed in CO₂-injected water inside a controlled chamber for 4 min at 5.5 MPa and damp cured for 21 days. Three replicate samples were tested for density, Water Absorption (WA), Thickness Swelling (TS), Modulus of Elasticity (MOE) and Modulus of Rupture (MOR). Corrugated and flat tiles were installed on a pitched roof structure and exposed to natural tropical weathering conditions for 24 months in Ibadan, Nigeria. Weather data were collected and triplicate samples of the installed roofing tiles were tested for density, WA and TS at 90-day intervals. Composite density (1.9–2.0 g/cm³), WA (7.5–8.7%) and TS (7.8–11.1%) were relatively high. Partial replacement of cement with RHA, CCW and CESA slightly reduced the density and TS but significantly increased the WA (p ≤ 0.05). The MOE (1.5–2.8 GPa) and MOR (1.4–5.0 MPa) were relatively low. However, RHA and CCW significantly increased MOE and MOR. Temperature, relative humidity and rainfall values for the weathering test duration were 28.8- 33.4 °C, 13.0–88.5% and 5.1–16.4 mm respectively. All installed tiles exhibited a minimal reduction in density (<0.6 g/cm³), WA (3.0–4.6%) and TS (approximately 3%). Flat roofing tiles containing 10%RHA gave the best overall performance.

Environmental concerns about CO₂ emissions during Portland cement manufacture have drawn attention to the need to minimise cement consumption. Mixing cement with relatively cheap and readily available polymers is one way of addressing the challenge. This study, therefore, investigated the effects of polymer–cement admixtures on selected properties of rattan cane fibre-reinforced roofing tiles. Mature rattan (Laccosperma secundiflorum) canes were sun-dried and hammer-milled. The fibres were treated with dilute NaOH (10% w/v). Three polymeric materials were used in polymer–cement admixtures—natural rubber latex; Cissus populnea gel extracted from the stem of cissus plant; and acrylic emulsion latex, a synthetic paint. Triplicate samples of 160 × 50 × 6 mm composite tiles were produced with 3% fibre content using 0.5 cement/water ratio. Based on preliminary studies, cement was partially replaced (w/w) with 5,7.5, 10% natural rubber latex;10, 20%, 30% acrylic emulsion latex; and 10,20,30% Cissus populnea gel in different composite samples cured under wet conditions for 28 days. The Density, Water Absorption, Thickness Swelling, Apparent Porosity, Modulus of Elasticity, and Modulus of Rupture of the samples were determined using standard methods. Composite densities ranged between 0.86 and 1.23gc/m³. All the three polymers, particularly natural rubber latex, significantly reduced the density (p ≤ 0.05). Water Absorption ranged between 0.62 and 1.66%. Though Cissus populnea gel significantly increased Water Absorption, the values still fell within acceptable limits. Thickness Swelling (0.54–2.76%) was relatively low. Apparent Porosity (11.6–28.5%) was also relatively low except in samples containing acrylic emulsion latex. The Modulus of Elasticity (930-4649 N/mm²) and Modulus of Rupture (1.12–4.58 N/mm²) were within acceptable limits. However, natural rubber latex had negative, while Cissus populnea gel had positive effects on both strength properties with the gel increasing the Modulus of Elasticity and Modulus of Rupture by approximately 100% of the control sample values. It was concluded that relatively strong and dimensionally stable rattan fibre-reinforced roofing tiles can be produced with Cissus populnea gel–cement admixtures at cement replacement levels of up to 30%.

The ban on asbestos-cement roofing sheets in many countries has contributed to the search for more environmentally friendly roofing materials. This study examined the effects of different cement admixtures and accelerated curing on physico-mechanical properties of coconut husk fibre-reinforced composite roofing tiles. Incineration temperatures were 800 °C for Rice husk Ash (RHA), 500 °C for Chicken Eggshell Ash Type 1(CESA1) and 900 °C for Chicken Eggshell Ash Type 2 (CESA2) which was hydrolysed before use. Calcium Carbide Waste (CCW) and Limestone Portland Cement (LPC) were also used as admixtures. For composite manufacture, fibre content was 4% of cement mass; cement: water mass ratio was 0.4, and cement: sand ratio was 1:2. A super-plasticizer of 0.3% of cement mass was added. Cement admixtures were 70% OPC + 15%RHA + 15%CESA; 70%LPC + 15%CCW + 15%CESA; and 70%LPC + 7.5%RHA + 7.5% CCW + 15% CESA. Control specimens were thermally cured at 60 °C for 5 days. The specific gravity and Thermal-Degradation-Temperature (TDT) of raw materials were determined. The CO₂- cured specimens were exposed to 15% CO₂ at 60 °C, 60% RH and 0.34 MPa for 9 h. Six, 160 × 40 × 6 mm³ replicate samples were tested to determine composite Bulk Density (BD), Moisture Contents (MC), Water Absorption (WA), and Modulus of Rupture (MOR). Micrographs of specimens were obtained using Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM). Composite bulk density (1.77–2.14 g/cm³) and WA (6.9–16.1%) were relatively high. Partial replacement of cement with RHA, CCW and CESA reduced the bulk density and increased the WA, particularly in the thermally cured CESA1-based samples. The MOR (9.2–12.9 MPa) of the CO₂-cured CESA2 samples were higher than the CESA1 samples and control. Micrographs showed acceptable fibre–matrix interaction in all tested samples.

Concrete is the main and popular construction material in Malaysia. Cost effectiveness and durability are the main factors that make them the best and affordable materials in Malaysia. In this paper, we present a non-destructive approach for high strength concrete with the inclusion of POFA. Apart from that, crack monitoring of high strength concrete with POFA is also monitored. High strength concrete is designed for Grade 60 and the utilization of POFA acts as an additive from 2.5, 5 and 7.5% from cement weight. All specimens will undergo water curing and testing on 7 and 28 days. All samples will be evaluated for NDT testing using rebound hammer and UPV and eventually after NDT samples will be tested for bending using an universal testing machine to see the flexural behaviour and crack pattern. From this report, it is seen that NDT testing shows a similar result as compared to the destructive test. In addition, the utilisation of POFA at every level of addition in concrete also enhanced the cracking behaviour of concrete. In conclusion, the utilisation of POFA is a proof to enhance the concrete performance in mechanical properties. Apart from that, the NDT approach can be an alternative to investigate the mechanical properties as compared to the destructive test.

Malaysia has been one of the world’s largest palm oil exporters which have been dealing with the issue of disposal of palm oil mill by-product known as palm oil fuel ash (POFA) over the years. However, over the past few years of research, this agro waste by-product has the potential to be utilized as construction material where it can be an alternative to conventional Ordinary Portland Cement (OPC). In the research, POFA is used as an alternative material to partially replace cement in concrete. The POFA used is treated to obtain the size of 212 microns before being used to partially replace cement by 0, 2.5, 5.0 and 7.5% of the cement weight. Workability properties of the concrete is covered by performing a slump test and flow table test. Whereas, the compressive and flexural test is conducted to obtain the mechanical properties of the concrete for curing age 1, 3, 7 and 28 days. It is revealed that the slump value increases as the POFA replacement percentage increases, however, the flow table shows a contradictory result. On the other hand, concrete with POFA shows enhanced mechanical properties, especially a 5% replacement percentage which is the optimum replacement level. Therefore, it is concluded that the inclusion of POFA in concrete thus improves the properties but only at an optimum level of replacement to cement.

The date palm (Phoenix Dactylifera), found mainly in the United States (California), North Africa and the Middle East, plays a significant contribution to the environmental and economic conditions in these regions. In addition to their high nutritional food value, date palms provide a wide range of abundantly renewable agricultural by-products. The date palm tree supplies eight types of residues: rachis, spines, leaflets, bunch, fibrillium, pedicels, spathe and petiole, that can be harvested during the seasonal pruning stage. In Tunisia, date palm tree acquires great importance historically, socially and economically. The pruning, especially the leaves, are used in various traditional industries and construction by farmers and artisans. Currently, craftsmen used synthetic dyes to dye their products. This paper is devoted to develop a dyeing process of handicrafts products with natural dyes. The colour yielding plant materials obtained from natural dyes extracted from date palm were compared to the dyes extracted from various sources such as: henna (Lawsonia inermis) leaves, madder (Rubia tinctoria) roots and turmeric (Curcuma Longla L.) rhizome. It can be assumed that the dyes extracted from date palm using different mordants can offer a rich palette of colours in various shades and tones. The several mordant's effects (ferrous sulphate and alum) on the colour and fastness properties of the dyed samples were studied comparatively. The colour of the dyed samples was studied according to the CIELab values (L*, a* and b*) and K/S values. The results seem to be very interesting and encouraging to explore at industrial textile scale.

High surface area microporous activated carbon has been prepared from date palm rachis by chemical activation with hydroxide sodium. The process has been conducted at different impregnation ratios (NaOH/precursor = 0.5–4) and carbonization temperatures (500, 600 and 700 °C). The physical structure and chemical properties of obtained activated carbon were derived from Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM), N₂ adsorption/desorption isotherms, Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), thermo gravimetric analysis (TGA), Boehm titration and pH zero point charge measurement (pH_PZC). The activated carbon obtained under optimal conditions (600 °C, RAM = 3, 2 h) has a mesoporous structure with a specific surface area of 1108 m² g⁻¹ and its surface contains mainly basic groups with a pH_ZCN = 8. Activated carbon was used as an adsorbent for the removal of o-cresol from aqueous solutions in continuous mode. The four most popular breakthrough models, namely, Adams–Bohart, Thomas, Yoon–Nelson and Yan were used for the correlation of breakthrough curve data along with the evaluation of model parameters. The Bohart-Adams model describes admirably the initial part of the breakthrough curve ((C_t/C₀) < 0.5), and the hole curve was well fitted by the Yoon-Nelson and Thomas models.