Proceedings of the RILEM Spring Convention and Conference 2024
Volume 1
- 2025
- Book
- Editors
- Liberato Ferrara
- Giovanni Muciaccia
- Niki Trochoutsou
- Book Series
- RILEM Bookseries
- Publisher
- Springer Nature Switzerland
About this book
This book gathers peer-reviewed contributions presented at the RILEM Spring Convention and Conference, held in Milan, Italy on April 7-12, 2024. The theme of the Conference was “Advanced construction materials and processes for a carbon neutral society”, which was aimed at discussing advanced construction/eco-friendly materials and processes, for new and existing structures, towards a carbon neutral society. The volume covers the current and emerging approaches that lead to an optimized design and maintenance of constructions and systems. It includes the development of materials and structural service life models and life cycle design, in order to maximise longevity and level of service while minimising the environmental impact of constructions and systems. It also includes the analysis and design of larger systems, such as communities, cities or regions, aiming at reducing risk andincreasing resilience. The following subtopics are included: advanced materials and structural concept to enhance the resilience and robustness of the built environment and communities at local and global scales; risk based inspection and maintenance; life cycle analysis and service models; performance based design; improved design strategies by integrating materials and structures.
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Table of Contents
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Sustainability in Construction and Case Studies
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Frontmatter
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Bio-Fibre Project: An Educational Framework to Promote the Use of Bio-Based Building Products
Paulina Faria, Laia Haurie, Sandra Lucas, Luisa Molari, Keld B. Nielsen, Maria Stefanidou, Vijoleta Sulciene, Laura TupenaiteThe Bio-Fibre project, funded by the Erasmus+ program, aims to promote the use of bio-based building products by developing an innovative educational framework. This framework includes a student-centred trans-disciplinary course on bio-composite materials for the building sector. The project involves collaboration among seven European universities and one company, focusing on improving pedagogical competences among teachers and educating students in sustainable construction practices. The course will be available online and will provide transnational, trans-disciplinary knowledge and skills in green construction with bio-composites. The project also includes intensive training sessions for teachers and students, as well as a strategy for disseminating the project’s results at various levels. Notably, the project addresses a gap in higher education programs by introducing training in building with bio-composites, which is essential for reducing material waste and fossil fuel consumption in the construction industry.AI Generated
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AbstractLooking into high education programmes across European countries reveals that training in building with bio-composites is still not sufficiently developed; teachers and students lack competence as well as knowledge and skills. Bio-composites are often neglected in civil engineering, architecture and other construction-related programmes. This gap in education and skills was the driving force behind the Erasmus + project BIO-FIBRE – Sustainable construction with bio-composite materials. Here, the project is presented, namely: the development of a methodological framework based on innovative student-centred learning approaches and improved pedagogical competence among teachers; the development of a new course contributing to increasing the use of bio-composites by educating students in sustainable construction practices with these materials; a strategy to ensure open awareness of the project’s results at the local, national, EU and transnational levels, promoting sustainable construction in higher education. -
RAPCON Project: Sustainable Concrete Made with Recycled Asphalt Pavement
Giulia Masi, Stefania Manzi, Beatrice De Pascale, Alessandra Bonoli, Maria Chiara Bignozzi, Andrea Filippi, Nicoletta Russo, Federica Lollini, Maddalena Carsana, Arianna Peduzzi, Annalisa Franco, Orsola Coppola, Elena RedaelliThe RAPCON project investigates the feasibility of using Reclaimed Asphalt Pavement (RAP) as a sustainable concrete aggregate. The study characterizes different types of RAP and evaluates their mechanical, microstructural, and durability properties when used in concrete mixes. It also assesses the environmental and economic sustainability of RAP-based concrete through Life Cycle Analysis (LCA) and cost evaluation. The project aims to draft a European Assessment Document (EAD) for certifying RAP as a concrete aggregate, contributing to the circular economy in the construction industry.AI Generated
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AbstractThis paper reports some of the outcomes of RAPCON, a 3-year-project financed by Fondazione Cariplo in the framework of the 2019 Call “Scientific Research – Circular Economy for a Sustainable Future”. The main objectives of RAPCON project were (i) the investigation of the use of RAP (Reclaimed Asphalt Pavement) as replacement of natural aggregates in concrete to study mechanical, microstructural and durability performances of RAP-based concrete; (ii) the assessment of the expected service life of concrete with increasing RAP content and determination of relevant environmental impacts by life cycle analysis (LCA); (iii) draft proposal of an European Assessment Document (EAD) aimed at the certification procedures of RAP as aggregate for concrete.RAPCON project allowed the analysis of a complete scenario related to the use of RAP as replacement of natural aggregates for structural concrete, highlighting the advantages and limitations related to the material, environmental and cost impacts and industrialization. -
Sustainable Concrete-Based Interventions for the Structural Retrofitting of Manifattura Tabacchi in Bologna by Pier Luigi Nervi
Chiara Gaddi, Cecilia Lega, Claudia Rota Graziosi, Giulio Zani, Marco di PriscoThe chapter delves into the sustainable retrofitting of historic concrete structures, using the Fabbricato Lavorazioni in Bologna as a case study. It discusses the evolution of concrete use in construction and the challenges posed by aging concrete buildings. The study focuses on the use of high-performance and fibre-reinforced concrete for structural interventions, comparing these methods to traditional steel-based solutions. The environmental and economic sustainability of both approaches are evaluated using life cycle assessment and cost estimations. The results demonstrate the effectiveness and sustainability of the concrete-based interventions, making a compelling case for their use in historic building preservation.AI Generated
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AbstractIn the framework of the conservation of twentieth-century heritage, the re-functionalization of the Manifattura Tabacchi in Bologna into technopole represents an opportunity to reflect on intervention strategies and materials for the preservation of concrete-based architecture. Focusing on the Fabbricato Lavorazioni, a building of the industrial complex realized by Pier Luigi Nervi during the 1950s, the paper presents structural measures that involve the use of innovative and fibre reinforced cementitious materials as a sustainable alternative to traditional strengthening interventions. The proposed structural solution involves the use of prefabricated elements made of high-performance and fibre reinforced concrete, thus ensuring an optimized use of materials. For the local shear strengthening, the use of carbon fibre reinforced polymer rods is proposed, according to the near-surface mounted technique. The presented interventions are compared with the actual steel-based design, following environmental and economic sustainability criteria including the life cycle of the materials and the cost estimation. The results show that the reinforced concrete solution is more advantageous both in economic and environmental terms. Indeed, the introduction of reinforced concrete shear walls mitigates the seismic actions on the original structure, with a consequent reduction of local interventions and the improvement of the overall sustainability. -
Study of Early-Age Phenomena at the Concrete-Marine Biofilm Interface in Seawater for the Construction of Eco-Friendly Fowt’s
Deeksha Margapuram, Marie Salgues, Raphaël Lami, Benjamin Erable, Michel Groc, Renaud Vuillemin, Bruno Hesse, Jean-Claude Souche, Florian Stratta, Fabrice Deby, Laurent Zudaire, Alexandra BertronThis chapter delves into the intricate relationship between marine biofilms and low-CO2 concrete used in Floating Offshore Wind Turbines (FOWTs). It investigates the biodiversity of marine biofilms and the microstructural and chemical changes in concrete surfaces immersed in seawater over a short exposure period. The study employs advanced techniques such as environmental DNA analysis, SEM-EDS, and EPMA to understand the influence of deleterious ions and the potential role of microorganisms in concrete biodegradation or protection. The findings reveal a diverse bacterial and eukaryotic community in marine biofilms and moderate alterations in the concrete's chemical composition, with chloride ions penetrating to significant depths. The chapter highlights the need for further research to fully comprehend the interactions between marine biofilms and concrete surfaces, crucial for the long-term durability of offshore wind turbine structures.AI Generated
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AbstractFloating Offshore Wind Turbines (FOWTs) are designed to harness the energy produced by wind. Since these structures are in deep waters, the engineering and dynamics of steel and or concrete structural elements (floaters, chains, mooring, etc.) is important to ensure significant performance. The durability of concrete in submerged zones is affected by biological and chemical deterioration mechanisms, with the latter being controlled by transport of aggressive ions. The influence of concrete on biodiversity developing on its surface plays a significant role as it contributes to the overall environmental footprint of the structure. The aim of this experimental research was to identify the surface interactions between cementitious materials such as concrete, biofouling at their surface, and seawater on short-term exposure. CEM III concrete specimens were submerged at a depth of 27m at SOLA station, Banyuls-sur-mer, France. The microstructural and chemical changes in the cementitious material were analysed with scanning electron microscopy coupled to energy dispersive spectroscopy (SEM-EDS) and electron probe micro analysis (EPMA). The results of SEM-EDS analysis showed the formation of three zones, namely, magnesium-rich, sulfur-rich, and chloride-rich zones. Using Environmental DNA analysis, bacterial diversity was identified, revealing high abundances of alphaproteobacteria and gammaproteobacteria, and 18s rRNA sequencing unveiling a diverse eukaryotic community. -
An Adaptive Upscaling Approach for Assessing Materials’ Circularity Potential with Non-destructive Testing (NDT)
Ghezal Ahmad Jan Zia, Christoph Völker, Benjamín Moreno Torres, Sabine KruschwitzThe chapter delves into the potential of adaptive upscaling with non-destructive testing (NDT) to evaluate materials' circularity potential in the construction sector. It focuses on the integration of artificial intelligence (AI) and adaptive sampling to improve the efficiency of condition assessments, particularly for detecting corrosion in reinforced concrete structures. The study highlights the challenges of extensive data collection in traditional NDT methods and proposes a solution through AI-driven adaptive sampling. This approach strategically selects measurement points to optimize data collection and enhance detection accuracy. The chapter presents a detailed methodology, including the implementation of AI-driven adaptive sampling and benchmarking procedures. It also discusses the experimental program and results, demonstrating the significant efficiency gains and high detection rates achieved by the AI-enhanced sampling methods. The findings underscore the transformative potential of this approach for structural health monitoring and sustainable construction practices aligned with the principles of the circular economy.AI Generated
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AbstractAdvancing towards a circular economy necessitates the efficient reuse and maintenance of structural materials, which relies on accurate, non-damaging condition assessments. This paper introduces an innovative AI-driven adaptive sampling (AS) technique integrated with Non-Destructive Testing (NDT) to optimize this process. AS focuses on critical data points, reducing the amount of data needed for precise assessments—evidenced by our method requiring on average only 7 samples for Logistic Regression and 8 for Random Forest, contrasted with 29 for traditional sampling.By reducing the necessity for extensive data collection, our method not only streamlines the assessment process but also significantly contributes to the sustainability goals of the circular economy. These goals include resource efficiency, waste reduction, and material reuse. Efficient condition assessments promote infrastructure longevity, reducing the need for new materials and the associated environmental impact.The circular economy aims to create a sustainable system where resources are reused, and waste is minimized. This is achieved by extending the lifecycle of materials, reducing the environmental footprint, and promoting recycling and reuse. Longevity directly contributes to the circular economy by maximizing the utility and lifespan of existing materials and structures. Longer-lasting infrastructure means fewer resources are needed for repairs or replacements, leading to reduced material consumption and waste generation. This aligns with the circular economy's principles of sustainability and resource efficiency. This research not only advances the field of structural health monitoring but also aligns with the broader objective of enhancing sustainable construction practices within the circular economy framework. -
Co2-reduction Potentials in Informal Settlements and Construction in Africa
Wolfram Schmidt, Angela Tetteh Tawiah, Fatma Mohamed, Roy Githaiga, Luca Valentini, Joseph Mwiti Marangu, Mareike ThiedeitzThe chapter explores the significant carbon emissions from informal settlements in Africa, driven by rapid urbanization and the need for new buildings. It highlights the transition from corrugated iron shacks to multi-story concrete buildings and assesses the carbon footprint of different structural materials. The study also delves into the role of the informal construction sector, which accounts for a substantial portion of the market, and its potential to adopt low-carbon materials. The authors present a case study on Kenya, projecting cement-related carbon emissions until 2050 and the impact of policy interventions. The chapter concludes with recommendations for sustainable development in informal settlements, emphasizing cultural awareness, specific frameworks, and the use of re-usable materials.AI Generated
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AbstractThe rapid population growth in Africa calls for an enormous increase in buildings both in urban and rural areas. This will dramatically increase the carbon emissions in Africa, particularly when not specific considerations are made with regard to the high level of informality in many urban African settlements and in the overall construction sector. After elaborating on the high climate impact of the informal African construction sector, the authors discuss some major differences and how structures and quarters would need to be designed to become sustainable, and materials concepts are presented that are sustainable even in a rapid urban growth situation as foreseeable in Africa, where whole city quarters will change their surface appearance inevitably within short cycles. A prediction for the example of Kenya is made on how much CO2 emissions can be reduced until 2050, when informal businesses are included or excluded in policies and technology developments for low carbon construction. The conclusions for longevity of urban settlements are that flexible and modular structures are better than efficiency optimised buildings, and that there is no alternative to multi-storey buildings, which, however, have to stay limited in height to avoid wasteful materials use. The vertical growth is also required to create social spaces, which are important for quarters to be safe from gentrification. Materials should be ideally fully reusable or renewable, hence, structural elements are best build from cementitious materials in a modular column, girder, slab system. -
Sustainability Optimization: Assessment of Recycling Scenarios for Timber-Concrete Hybrid Slabs
Laura Corti, Giovanni MuciacciaThe chapter delves into the critical role of the building sector in achieving a low-carbon society, emphasizing the importance of innovative materials like timber-concrete composite slabs. It examines the sustainability of timber through life-cycle assessments and evaluates various end-of-life scenarios for timber, such as landfill, incineration, recycling, and reuse. The study compares three sets of TCC slabs, analyzing their global warming potential (GWP) under different scenarios. The findings underscore the significance of recycling and reusing timber and the potential benefits of concrete carbon capture, offering valuable insights for sustainable building design and construction practices.AI Generated
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AbstractOver the last years, increasing awareness of the alarming proximity to critical climate tipping points is spreading, along with the knowledge that implications for the whole humanity would be exacerbated in case these limits are overcome. Thus, a series of international actions that also involve a rethinking of traditional steps for design, maintenance and dismantling in civil engineering applications initiated. One of the most demanding targets is to include environmental assessment of a structure already in the design phase to equate sustainability with other driving parameters, as e.g., economic benefits. Reduction of environmental impact cannot be reduced to a mere calculation, but it should be exploited for seeking new structural solutions in a comprehensive scenario. In such scenario, a composite slab made by concrete and engineered timber (Timber Concrete Composite, TCC) is a valuable answer to decrease environmental impact of such horizontal element, improving its rigidity, stiffness, and load-bearing capacity. In this context, a broad outlook supports a specific focus on uncertainties that may affect Life-Cycle Assessment (LCA) results: evaluation of multiple scenarios is the key to smooth uncertain data pertaining service life or End-of-Life events. Assessment of multiple scenarios allows for consideration of burdens and benefits currently treated as non-standard option, as e.g., mixed End-of-Life scenario exploiting both timber and concrete carbon capture inborn ability. In this way, the composite slab is used as concrete layer optimizer since the rationale behind this research pursues minimization of materials quantities through achievement of maximum environmental and structural performances. To deliver robust results, two sets of potential solutions are analzyed, characterised by the same bearing capacity or the same span, respectively. -
Low Carbon Concrete Admixtures. A New Class of Products for Concrete Net Zero 2050 Scenario
Giorgio Ferrari, Fabio Castiglioni, Clelia SartaThe chapter begins by highlighting the significant carbon emissions associated with concrete production, despite its low embodied energy. It then introduces Low Carbon Concrete Admixtures (LCCAs) as a new class of products designed to support the concrete industry's goal of Net Zero by 2050. The text explains the composition and functionality of LCCAs, including their unique combination of accelerating and retarding agents. Experimental results demonstrate the advantages of LCCAs in enhancing the compressive strength and reducing CO2 emissions in concrete. The chapter also provides a detailed analysis of the materials used, including different types of cements and binders, and presents the findings of mortar, cement paste, and concrete tests. The use of Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) methodology to quantify CO2 emission reductions further underscores the practical benefits of LCCAs in achieving sustainable concrete production.AI Generated
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AbstractAmong the main actions to a net concrete zero future, saving in cement and binders by replacement of clinker with supplementary cementitious materials (SCMs) is considered a major task. Nevertheless, it is well known that SCMs react slower compared to clinker and can negatively affect the strength development, both at early and long curing times. Moreover, clinker itself never hydrates completely and residual unreacted fractions always remain in concrete. Under such premises, the expected reduction of the clinker-to-cement ratio from the actual value of 0.71 to the target value of 0.57 by 2050 might be hardly achievable. Low Carbon Concrete Admixtures (LCCAs) is a new class of admixtures that comes alongside the existing water reducers, retarders and accelerators and it is destined to take on a prominent role as an essential integration for the sustainability of concrete. LCCAs increase the degree of hydration (DoH) of cements and compensate the decline of both early and final strength of blended cements compared to Portland cements, assuring a more rationale use of cement. LCCAs permit to achieve the same compressive strength with reduced dosage of cement. Moreover, by using LCCAs it is possible to increase the fraction of SCMs in blended cements and in concrete without detrimental effects on compressive strength. In the present work, an introduction to the new class of LCCAs is presented with examples how they can effectively play a fundamental role to reduce the carbon foot-printing of concrete in the view of the Net Zero 2050 Scenario. -
An Insight into the Mechanism of Hydration Promotion of Low Carbon Concrete Admixtures Revealed by a Multidisciplinary Approach
Fabio Castiglioni, Gilberto Artioli, Maria Chiara Dalconi, Giorgio Ferrari, Riccardo Guida, Clelia Sarta, Luca ValentiniThis chapter delves into the intricate mechanisms of hydration promotion in low carbon concrete admixtures, a novel class of materials designed to enhance the hydration of all chemical species in a binder. Through a multidisciplinary approach, the authors explore how these admixtures can maximize hydration and improve the mechanical properties of cementitious materials, all while reducing CO2 emissions. The study incorporates empirical formulation methods, analytical results from X-ray diffraction, and insights into the specific mechanisms of action of these admixtures. By understanding the nuanced effects of different admixtures on various cement types, the authors shed light on the potential of 'hydration promoters' to revolutionize the concrete industry. This comprehensive analysis not only demonstrates the feasibility of these admixtures but also highlights the need for further research to fully understand their diverse impacts on different binders.AI Generated
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AbstractLow Carbon Concrete Admixtures (LCCAs) are the newest class of admixtures developed for reducing the carbon footprint and improving the sustainability of concrete. Their formulation involves multiple chemicals for enhancing the degree of hydration (DoH) and the compressive strength of cementitious binders at both early and longer curing times. In the present work, the fundamentals of LCCAs are disclosed. Secondary nucleation, augmented pozzolanic reaction, enhanced silicate and aluminate phases dissolution and limestone trigger are the levers which, separately or synergistically, determine the LCCAs effectiveness with blended cements. The mechanism of each controlling factor has been described by the review of the previous literature and studied by the execution of new experimental tests and a statistical analysis approach. Experimental measurements include time resolved XRD hydration kinetics and compressive strength testing of mortars with and without LCCAs. The wide range of chemical-physical processes involved and the possibility to combine the different ingredients in various proportions offer the possibility to formulate a range of products specifically designed for blended cements, which are believed to further expand both in number and composition in the coming years. -
Evaluating the Performance of Low-Carbon Mortars for Sustainable Construction
Ahmad Jan, Lucia Ferrari, Nikola Mikanovic, Mohsen Ben-Haha, Elisa FranzoniThe chapter delves into the critical issue of sustainable construction by assessing the performance of low-carbon mortars incorporating recycled fine aggregates (RFA) and limestone calcined clay cement (LC³). It begins by contextualizing the need for sustainable construction practices due to the environmental impact of conventional concrete. The study then explores the advantages of using RFA and LC³, such as reducing natural resource consumption and CO₂ emissions. The evaluation includes an analysis of the workability, mechanical strength, and durability properties of mortars prepared with RFA and LC³, comparing them with traditional cements. The results demonstrate that LC³ mortars exhibit superior mechanical strength and improved durability, making them a promising alternative for sustainable construction. The chapter also highlights the importance of binder composition in determining the overall performance of mortars, particularly in applications where water absorption is a critical factor. By combining RFA and LC³, the study underscores the potential for developing more environmentally friendly and sustainable construction materials.AI Generated
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AbstractThe use of Recycled Fine Aggregate (RFA) combined with limestone calcined clay cement (LC3) shows a potential to reduce the environmental impacts of the ordinary Portland cement (OPC) production process, while also providing a viable alternative to the depletion of natural resources for building materials. This study was carried out to examine the mechanical and physical properties of LC3–based mortar integrated with high dosages of recycled fine aggregates. An affordable, eco-friendly, and sustainable alternative binder has been prepared by substituting 50 wt% of the clinker in CEM I with a blend of calcined clay (CC) and limestone (LS) powder with CC:LS of 2:1 in mass. The mortar was produced with RFA from construction and demolition waste as a substitute for natural sand with different replacement ratios of 50 vol% and 100 vol%. The fresh state behaviour of mortars was evaluated by the flow table test. The 28-days mechanical properties (compressive strength) were evaluated, and similarly, water absorption, capillary water absorption rate, and porosity were investigated after 28 days of curing for the durability assessment. The LC3 binder showed better mechanical strength than CEM II at all levels of fine aggregate replacement and improved the 28-days compressive strength by 12% for natural sand, 9% for 50% RFA, and 23% for 100% RFA, respectively. Similarly, the LC3 binder compensates negative impact of recycled sand porosity and reduces the capillary water absorption coefficient by 39, 47, and 42% for natural sand, 50%, and 100% RFA respectively. Employment of LC3 binder with RFA for the production of mortar with superior mechanical properties is useful for the reduction of environmental depletion and waste management. -
Integrating Moisture Dynamics into Architectural Design Workflows: A Grasshopper Plugin to Grasp the Benefits of Moisture Buffering Materials
Magda Posani, Yasmine Priore, Ganeshalingam Sarangi, Dominique Daudon, Guillaume HabertThe chapter discusses the significance of moisture dynamics in architectural design, highlighting the advantages of low-carbon materials like earth- and bio-based products. It introduces the WaterSkater plugin, a Grasshopper tool that leverages advanced hygrothermal simulations to model the benefits of moisture buffering materials. The study presents a case study of an office building in Grenoble, comparing the effects of different materials on indoor humidity levels. The results showcase the plugin's ability to grasp the benefits of moisture buffering materials, which are often overlooked in traditional design workflows. The chapter concludes by emphasizing the potential of the plugin to enhance indoor comfort and promote the use of low-carbon materials in building design.AI Generated
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AbstractLow-carbon building materials, such as earth- and bio-based ones, have an excellent capacity to regulate indoor moisture levels. Thanks to their hygroscopic nature, they can buffer moisture from the indoor environment, absorbing it when humidity increases and releasing it when the air becomes drier. This moisture-buffering capacity can significantly improve indoor comfort and well-being. However, the extent of this benefit depends on factors like building usage, occupancy, ventilation rates, and external climate conditions. Thus, dynamic numerical simulations are often necessary to quantify the materials’ benefits considering specific building scenarios.This paper investigates incorporating moisture dynamics evaluation into early architectural design workflows using the Grasshopper interface of Rhinoceros. This integration offers an advancement beyond conventional building performance simulations provided by current Grasshopper plugins. The paper explores the effectiveness of the newly developed WaterSkater plugin in assessing the hygrometric benefits of using moisture-buffering materials in architecture. This study represents the first application of the plugin, with future studies planned to validate its accuracy and correctness.The plugin discussed in this study allows for integrating materials’ moisture buffering capacity into early-stage architectural design workflows. This step enables designers to strategically select materials that align not only with sustainability objectives and desired U-values but also understand their potential for indoor humidity regulation. The presented plugin enables the incorporation of low-carbon, moisture-buffering materials from the early stages of building design, allowing for a strategic use of their moisture-regulating potential to improve indoor comfort and reduce the need for ventilation and humidity-control mechanical systems. -
Early Hydration of Slag Cements Blended with Recycled Concrete Fines
Jingwen Liu, Caitlin Lommaert, Pieter Rauwoens, Özlem CizerThe chapter delves into the effects of incorporating recycled concrete fines (RCF) into slag-blended cements, focusing on early hydration and setting properties. It demonstrates that RCF enhances the hydration of slag and alumina phases, leading to accelerated setting times and altered phase assemblages. The research uses advanced techniques such as isothermal calorimetry, thermogravimetric analysis, and X-ray diffraction to reveal the mechanisms behind these changes. Notably, the presence of additional gypsum and metastable CaCO3 polymorphs in RCF contributes to faster hydration and the formation of hemicarboaluminate. These findings offer promising avenues for developing more sustainable and efficient concrete materials.AI Generated
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AbstractThis study explores the effects of replacing up to 30% of ground granulated blast furnace slag with recycled concrete fines (RCF), a secondary fine powder waste (<63 µm) from recycled concrete aggregate production, while maintaining a 50% cement replacement ratio. A limestone-slag cement benchmark group with 10% slag replaced by limestone powder was also prepared. The results indicate that the incorporation of RCF can enhance the early-age hydration reactions. Isothermal calorimetry results show a notable increase in heat release and emergency of a distinct secondary aluminate peak with the increased RCF fraction, while this is not observed in limestone-slag cement. This could be attributed to the presence of additional gypsum and calcium carbonate phases in RCF. XRD results reveal that a formation of Hemicarboaluminate (Hc) was already presented at 1 day in RCF blends. TGA results indicated an increased chemically bounded water content yet reduced portlandite content in RCF blended paste at 1 day, which confirmed RCF’s synergetic acceleration effect on slag early reaction. The initial setting time of slag-blended cement was significantly advanced from 446 min to 163 min by replacing up to 30% slag with RCF. This research proves that the incorporation of RCF can be a promising method to overcome the prolonged setting time and inefficient slag use issue in the high slag volume binder system. -
Plastic Waste for Concrete Mixture: Advanced Strategies and Solutions
Maria Concetta Oddo, Liborio CavaleriThe chapter delves into the pressing issue of plastic waste management, focusing on the potential of incorporating plastic waste into concrete mixtures. It discusses the environmental advantages of this approach, such as reducing landfill waste and enhancing thermal and sound insulation properties of concrete. The chapter also explores the mechanical performance of concrete with varying percentages and types of plastic waste, presenting experimental data on compressive strength and fire resistance. By comparing different types of plastic aggregates and their impact on concrete properties, this chapter offers valuable insights for sustainable construction practices and waste management strategies.AI Generated
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AbstractIn recent years, various waste recycling strategies have emerged emphasizing the utilization of plastic waste in concrete mixtures. This practice offers a dual advantage by decreasing the demand for traditional aggregates, like sand and gravel, or lightweight aggregates while mitigating plastic accumulation in landfills and oceans, promoting a circular economy. Although high plastic content may worsen mechanical characteristics, proper mix designs can optimize concrete containing plastic aggregates to be lighter and beneficial for weight-sensitive applications.This study investigates the influence of plastic waste on concrete mechanical characteristics, incorporating different types of plastic waste in varying percentages to identify potential applications. Experimental results indicate that incorporating plastic waste does not significantly compromise concrete strength. Despite promising findings, challenges associated with using plastic waste in concrete must be addressed to optimize this practice and overcome drawbacks. These efforts align with sustainable waste management and eco-friendly construction practices, underscoring the importance of refining the use of plastic waste in concrete. -
Active Control of Concrete Curing Monitored by Acoustic Emission
Eleni Korda, Eleni Tsangouri, Didier Snoeck, Geert De Schutter, Dimitrios G. AggelisThe chapter 'Active Control of Concrete Curing Monitored by Acoustic Emission' delves into the critical early-age processes of concrete curing, which significantly influence its long-term properties. It introduces the concept of active control, where an external signal triggers an intended response in the material to limit unwanted behaviors like shrinkage and cracking. The study focuses on high-performance concrete, where shrinkage cracking is more prevalent due to its low porosity. Acoustic Emission (AE) is highlighted as a high-sensitivity technique for monitoring fresh and hardening cementitious materials, providing real-time data from the material's interior. Superabsorbent Polymers (SAPs) are introduced as a form of passive control for internal curing, with their water release and detachment from the pore wall creating high AE recordings. The research presents a method to control SAP activity using real-time AE data, applying a water layer on the concrete surface to maintain internal RH and prevent premature water release. This active control technique aims to enhance the mechanical properties of SAP concrete, as demonstrated by increased compressive strength and Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity (UPV) in treated specimens. The chapter concludes by emphasizing the potential of this non-destructive, inexpensive method for practical industrial applications in controlling concrete curing and enhancing its mechanical properties.AI Generated
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AbstractThe quality of concrete is strongly dependent on the curing process. Environmental changes in temperature and relative humidity can result in premature drying, which in turn can cause cracking on the surface of the material. Hence, monitoring the concrete curing is essential to prevent undesirable behavior. Techniques such as Acoustic Emission (AE) have proven very promising for monitoring the curing of cement-based materials due to their high sensitivity level. Shrinkage cracking can be mitigated using admixtures such as SuperAbsorbent Polymers (SAPs) which provide internal curing for several hours after casting by releasing entrained mixing water back into the concrete matrix. This action taking place in the microstructure, although beneficial, is difficult to monitor or control. However, recently it was shown that release of SAP water into the cementitious matrix is accompanied by high AE recordings enabling, therefore, the monitoring of the process. This paper discusses the possibility of controlling the internal curing of concrete based on real-time AE data in order to ensure the desired concrete performance. The results showed that by applying a curing agent on the concrete surface, at the moments dictated by the increase of AE, the SAP activity is postponed. This indicates that their action can be deactivated and reactivated multiple times during curing, resulting in prolonged internal curing and thus, better hydration. The mechanical properties are also investigated, showing an increase in the compressive strength for the actively controlled SAP specimens. -
Water Consumption of Concrete Production in Panama
Yazmin L. Mack-Vergara, Luis Sulbarán, Yamileth LimaThe chapter delves into the critical issue of water consumption in concrete production in Panama, emphasizing the importance of local water inventories and conservation strategies. It presents primary data collected from 20 concrete plants across different provinces, revealing a wide range of water sources and uses. The study identifies practices that influence water consumption, such as aggregate storage methods, and highlights the potential for significant improvement in water efficiency. Additionally, it discusses the challenges and opportunities in standardizing water accounting methodologies and integrating national initiatives like the 'Reduce Tu Huella—Hídrica' program. The chapter underscores the need for a holistic approach to water footprint assessment, considering both water and carbon emissions, to enhance the environmental performance of the concrete production sector.AI Generated
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AbstractWater is the most precious resource in the world. It is fundamental for basic human needs, economic growth, and sustainable development. Unlike carbon-related impacts, water-related impacts are local. Therefore, local water inventories are needed. In this study, the water consumption per cubic meter of concrete produced in Panama is estimated based on primary data from the industry. The technological routes for concrete production in Panama are described with a focus on water use based on 20 technical visits. The specific water consumption (L/m3) during 2022 is estimated for 11 concrete plants. Different concrete production practices, such as covering the aggregates, spraying the aggregates with water, and using cold water and ice for temperature control of the concrete mix, were observed. Most of the water use comes from the public water network and groundwater. However, in some cases, harvested rainwater and recycled water are implemented as water sources. The preliminary results show that the water consumption ranges from 189.88 to 641.84 L/m3. Through rainwater harvesting, water recycling, and covering of the aggregates, the water consumption from the public network and groundwater is reduced, which, in turn, decreases energy consumption, especially for groundwater extraction. This is an example of the water–energy nexus that could contribute to the carbon footprint. On the other hand, the aggregate spray process could increase water consumption, even more so when aggregates are not indoors and when sprinkling is not controlled. Furthermore, a standard water accounting methodology should be implemented to help achieve water-reduction strategies. -
Advancements in Hygrothermal Monitoring: A Comparative Study of Sensor Reliability and Installation Strategies in Construction Elements
Simone Panico, Marco Larcher, Riccardo Pinotti, Giordano Miori, Paola Brugnara, Daniel Herrera-AvellanosaThe chapter delves into the critical issue of excessive humidity in building envelopes, which can lead to structural damage and reduced material performance. It focuses on the use of moisture-adaptive membranes and the need for accurate hygrothermal monitoring to prevent such issues. A scaled prototype of a roof timber structure was used to compare the reliability of four capacitive sensors and different installation strategies. The study highlights the importance of careful sensor placement and installation methods to ensure accurate readings. The results show that certain installation methods, like the improved 'Window Method (B)', can provide reliable data even in challenging conditions. This research is crucial for the design and maintenance of buildings, helping to prevent moisture-related problems and ensuring the longevity of structures.AI Generated
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AbstractThe prevention of moisture related damages in construction is extremely important to ensure the durability of buildings, to save resources in their management and to ensure safe and healthy environments for occupants. The assessment of the internal hygrothermal conditions of construction elements using real time monitoring is a powerful strategy to prevent them and can yield profound insights into the dynamics of each individual case examined. However, it is crucial to identify reliable sensors and installation strategies. The use of capacitive and resistive sensors is a prevalent approach; however, it is not without challenges. Drilling into the stratigraphy to place these sensors requires boreholes, which not only potentially alter the measurements but may also be impractical, both in existing buildings and new constructions. The ideal scenario is to integrate sensors during the construction or retrofitting phase to obtain reliable data but also in this case a careful planning and a correct selection of the sensors is needed. This study investigates these challenges in a controlled environment using a double climatic chamber and a real-scale timber frame façade that integrates a moisture-adaptive membrane on one side and a bituminous membrane on the other side to reproduce the stratigraphy of a flat roof. Different type of sensors as well as different installation approaches (including before and after assembly) are used and assessed. This research presents a new method for installing sensors after assembly. When applied precisely, the approach generates accurate sensor data comparable to pre-installed sensors. However, rapid changes in humidity can cause a decline in accuracy, and it’s important to restore the structure’s airtightness when mounting sensors in existing structures to ensure reliable data collection. -
Recycled Brick as a Partial Cement Substitute
Milot Muhaxheri, Teresa Liberto, Johannes Kirnbauer, Benjamin Kromoser, Iyad Ahmed, Agathe RobissonThe construction industry's significant contribution to natural resource depletion and waste generation has sparked interest in recycling materials like fired clay products. This chapter delves into the potential of using recycled brick powder (RB) as a partial substitute for Portland cement (OPC) in concrete production. By replacing up to 90% of OPC with RB, the study evaluates the mechanical properties and early hydration processes through small amplitude oscillatory shear (SAOS) rheology and calorimetry. The results indicate that formulations containing at least 30% OPC exhibit comparable early reactivity and mechanical strength to pure OPC. Moreover, a life cycle assessment (LCA) reveals that incorporating RB can significantly reduce the global warming potential, highlighting the environmental benefits of this approach. The chapter concludes with the feasibility of using RB as a cement substitute, emphasizing the need for further investigations into long-term durability.AI Generated
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AbstractThe integration of construction demolition waste (CDW) as a supplementary cementitious material presents a promising avenue to mitigate the environmental impact of concrete production by reducing clinker content. Notably, in some areas, up to 50% of CDW are brick residues, highlighting the substantial potential impact of incorporating these wastes into construction practices. This study specifically focuses on optimizing cementitious mixtures by partially replacing ordinary Portland cement (OPC) with recycled brick powder (RB). Different mix designs, with RB replacement spanning from 10 to 90%, are analyzed through rheology (i.e., small amplitude oscillatory shear or SAOS), isothermal calorimetry, and mechanical testing. An equal workability of each mix design is ensured through the use of a superplasticizer. Results from rheology and calorimetry show satisfactory cohesion and heat evolution for RB content up to 70%. At this high substitution level with only 30% of OPC, the 28-day compressive strength still reached 16 MPa. Mechanical testing on OPC/RB mortar shows satisfactory results, particularly for OPC replacement up to 50% with a compressive strength higher than 30 MPa after 28 days. A life cycle assessment (LCA) focusing on global warming potential (GWP) is conducted to quantify the potential environmental improvement of the optimized binder mixtures during the production stage. This combined methodology is promising for the development of environmentally friendly construction materials. -
Enhancing Reactivity of EAF Slag Based Ferrite-Rich Cement Clinker
Elijah Adesanya, Visa Isteri, Juho YliniemiThe chapter delves into the environmental impacts of cement production and the potential of EAF slag as an alternative material for clinker production. It discusses the properties of EAF slag and its suitability for producing a high iron-rich ferrite-containing cement clinker. The text also explores the challenges and benefits of incorporating EAF slag into cement production, highlighting the potential to enhance the reactivity of cement clinker and reduce the environmental footprint of the cement industry.AI Generated
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AbstractThe cement industry is working towards CO2 cuts in clinker production, and ferrite-rich cement could be a solution. When compared to OPC cement, ferrite-rich cement requires less calcium, lower clinkering temperature and enables valorization of iron rich residues to a higher extent. Here, we utilize a novel Electric Arc Furnace (EAF) slag originating from new direct reduced iron ore (DRI) process route used in steel manufacture. The DRI process is an emerging low CO2 production pathway that employs hydrogen in the direct reduction of iron ore. This new process route is intended to replace conventional blast furnaces in some parts of the world in the near future. In this study, 18.9% of this slag was used as the clinker feedstock (with other materials) with the aim to increase the ferrite phase (26.4 wt.%) in the clinker. The clinkering was done at 1400 ºC and the clinker was rapidly cooled, the phase composition of the clinker was analysed through X-ray diffraction. Iron rich phases in cement, such as ferrite (also known as brownmillerite), typically have poor hydraulic properties, to enhance their hydration, triisopropanolamine (TIPA) at two different dosages (low and high) were added in the cement and hydrated. The effect of this dosages on the ferrite hydration were then studied via isothermal calorimetry, X-ray diffraction (XRD), and thermogravimetry analysis (TGA). Results shows the potential of valorising this slag as a feedstock in cement clinker, and the reactivity of the increased ferrite phase can be improved with the addition of TIPA during hydration. -
Minimising the Carbon Footprint of Standard-Compliant Structural Concrete by Adopting Low-Binder LC3 Mix Designs
Beatrice Malchiodi, Hisham Hafez, Karen ScrivenerThis chapter delves into the pressing need to minimize the carbon footprint of standard-compliant structural concrete due to increasing global demand. It introduces Limestone Calcined Clay Cement (LC3) as a promising solution for reducing clinker content in cement. The study compares standard-compliant and low-binder concrete mixes, demonstrating that lower binder contents can achieve the same strength classes without compromising mechanical properties. The research highlights the potential for significant CO2 savings, up to 50%, by adopting low-binder LC3 mix designs. Additionally, it shows improved resistance to chloride penetration, providing a comprehensive approach to sustainable concrete production. The findings suggest a shift toward performance-based specifications in concrete standards, offering a pathway to achieve carbon neutrality by 2050.AI Generated
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AbstractConcrete is, as a matter of fact, the only construction material able to globally meet the growing demand for new structures and infrastructure. Hence, CO2 emissions related to the construction sector, mainly attributable to Ordinary Portland Cement (OPC), are expected to increase. Rapid and effective solutions are needed to meet future demands sustainably and achieve carbon neutrality by 2050. Among these, reducing clinker in cement and reducing cement in concrete are considered the most promising and ready-to-use. Limestone Calcined Clay Cement (LC3) is widely recognised as the most feasible blended cement addressing the former. Whereas the latter is currently prevented by the requirement of a minimum binder content in concrete in most existing prescriptive-based Standards. This work aims to minimize the CO2 emissions of standard-compliant structural concretes by suggesting a low-carbon and low-binder concrete design, thus providing evidence for an update of prescriptive codes. LC3 concrete mixes were designed to reduce the clinker content by up to -75% and binder content to 250 kg/m3 while targeting normal-use strength classes (C25/30, C30/37). The mechanical and durability properties of the low-binder LC3 mixes were compared to equivalent OPC mixes designed according to European codes. A life cycle analysis highlighted the CO2 reduction potential of the new systems while ensuring good mechanical properties and improved resistance to chloride penetration. Imposing a minimum cement content resulted in a conservative approach leading to overconsumption of cement (+30 to +70 kg/m3) and higher CO2 emissions (+45%) compared to an efficient mix design of blended cement concrete. -
Road Infrastructure Maintenance: A Future Oriented FO-Based Monitoring System
Daniel Luceri, Ilaria Ingrosso, Alessandro Largo, Celina Solari, Marco Nucci, Edoardo Segù, Fabio PierettoThe chapter delves into the InfraROB EU Project's transformative approach to road infrastructure maintenance, focusing on the development and validation of a fiber optic sensor (FOS)-based monitoring system. RINA Consulting S.p.A. (RINA-C) combines road engineering and digitalization to create a future-oriented system that can detect and monitor road damages in real-time. The chapter discusses the selection and testing of suitable FOS cables, laboratory-scale and real-scale tests, and the potential benefits of this innovative approach, including targeted maintenance and significant cost savings. The preliminary results demonstrate the feasibility and effectiveness of the FOS-based system, paving the way for condition-based road maintenance that enhances safety, traffic comfort, and infrastructure longevity.AI Generated
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AbstractRoad infrastructures maintenance is one of the trend topics of the last years. Road transport is the principal mode of inland passenger travel in Europe and often their management and maintenance systems are dated. InfraROB is a European Union’s Horizon 2020 fonded project (09/2021–02/2025) which aims (among the others) to increase the availability of the transport network, to reduce the cost of the repetitive tasks and to upgrade the maintenance system of the road infrastructures. InfraROB entails advancement across different, but strictly interrelated, technological areas. Nuova Tesi System is involved in the development of an all-in-one multi-functional precast concrete element applicable as roadside safety/restraint system and as road construction element at the same time, but also in tests on new solutions for road maintenance exploiting Fiber Optic Sensors (FOS) technology for asphalt-paved roads. The sensors, embedded in the asphalt, can monitor parameters as strain and temperature along the stretch of interest (up to 2 km) with a resolution of 1 cm, using the Rayleigh scattering. Extensive test campaign (in both laboratory and real scale) inspected FOS parameter and performance, highlighting a 100% success rate in surviving to asphalt realization process and the capability of detecting residual stress during the pavement realization. The obtained results confirm the technology’s potential to revolutionize road maintenance.
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- Title
- Proceedings of the RILEM Spring Convention and Conference 2024
- Editors
-
Liberato Ferrara
Giovanni Muciaccia
Niki Trochoutsou
- Copyright Year
- 2025
- Publisher
- Springer Nature Switzerland
- Electronic ISBN
- 978-3-031-70277-8
- Print ISBN
- 978-3-031-70276-1
- DOI
- https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-70277-8
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