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2018 | Book

Renewable Energy Sources: Engineering, Technology, Innovation

ICORES 2017

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About this book

This volume presents refereed papers based on the oral and poster presentations at the 4th International Conference on Renewable Energy Sources, which was held from June 20 to 23, 2017 in Krynica, Poland. The scope of the conference included a wide range of topics in renewable energy technology, with a major focus on biomass and solar energy, but also extending to geothermal energy, heat pumps, fuel cells, wind energy, energy storage, and the modeling and optimization of renewable energy systems. The conference had the unique goal of gathering Polish and international researchers’ perspectives on renewable energy sources, and furthermore of balancing them against governmental policy considerations. Accordingly, the conference offered not only scientific sessions but also panels to discuss best practices and solutions with local entrepreneurs and federal government bodies. The Conference was jointly organized by the University of Agriculture in Krakow, the International Commission of Agricultural and Biosystems Engineering (CIGR), the Polish Society of Agricultural Engineering, AGH University of Science and Technology (Krakow), the Polish Society for Agrophysics under the patronage of the Rector of the University of Agriculture in Krakow, and the Polish Chamber of Ecology.





Table of Contents

Frontmatter
Study the Physical Properties of the Fruit Pomace for Energy Use

The world economy in the production of electricity and heat, is increasingly based on the use of renewable energy sources to replace partially or totally fossil fuels. Biofuels provide an opportunity for energy production in many sectors while maintaining ecological conditions. Having regard to energy security in all regions of the country and the guarantee of sufficient resources for energy production, it must be constantly searched for new and locally available raw materials for the production of environmentally friendly fuel, whose physico-chemical parameters will fully implement efficient combustion or incineration. Fruit processing plants offer post-production waste, which can be used as biomass. At the turn of the last years they developed a number of kilns, whose aim is to get the plant product with a humidity below 15%. Laboratory tests conducted at Kielce University of Technology, demonstrated the possibility of using agro biomass as a component of the mixtures of waste wood for their energy efficiency. Analytical moisture, heat of combustion, calorific value, and ash participation were analyzed. It has shown the difference in the residue of the same mixture at two temperatures of incineration. The possibility of increasing the amount of biomass as a renewable source of energy becomes a reality, both in industry and in private farms. To stop the process of environmental pollution, which has recently been intensified more and more, one should be more broadly interested in the use of post-production waste of plant origin, available on the domestic market.

Joanna Pasternak, Paweł Purgał
Tests of a Steam Piston Engine Under Supercritical Conditions

The purpose of the tests is smart growth of a micro combined heat and power plant, intended to be fed with biogas, biomass or any other type of fuel (an aspect to be taken into account in the developmental stage of a prototype) with an impulse piston steam engine, power generator or a water brake (modelling, simulating, substituting workloads). The research system included the following units: an inductive supercritical steam generator (eventually replaced with a steam boiler fed with biogas, biomass or any other solid or liquid fuel), a piston steam engine fed with steam of supercritical parameters with a patented steam-supply system including an impulse injection valve, a power generator (interchangeably with water brake), a steam generation system.

Janusz Wełnowski, Damian Wełnowski, Tomasz Topoliński, Józef Flizikowski, Adam Mroziński
The Visualization of Combustion Air Flow that Flows into the Dendromass Combustion Process Using CFD Simulations

The air quality significantly affects the state of the environment, human health as well as individual ecosystems, and biomass burning contributes significantly it. The European Union is pushing on regulations of boiler manufacturers in order to reduce the emission concentration. Due to this, manufacturers improve, modify and innovate their products, reduce emissions and also increase the efficiency of the boilers. This research focuses on a particular type of wood-blowing boiler. Many factors directly or indirectly affect the burning quality, which enter the process of incinerating solid dendromass. The distribution of combustion air is one of the factors affecting efficiency and emissions in a small heat sources [1]. The experimental boiler has a supply of primary air to the chamber with wood and the supply of secondary air to the combustion chamber for combustion of the formed wood gas. During the operation of the boiler, uneven wood burning-of and the solid residue were found. Therefore, combustion in such a boiler is less efficient and produces higher emissions. Therefore, it is necessary to analyze the air flow in a particular combustion plant [2]. The actual distribution of combustion air to the dendromass incineration process is impossible to detect by real-time measurement and therefore a suitable alternative of his detection is CFD simulation, which used to optimize the distribution of combustion air in a small heat source [3]. In the first stage, the analyses of the combustion air distribution were performed under various input conditions and consequently the optimization measures of the combustion air distribution were solved. The CFD simulation data will be analyzed using non-invasive visualization measurements using the PIV method in further research.

Alexander Čaja, Štefan Papučík, Marek Patsch, Nikola Kantová
Possibility of Using Energy Crops for Phytoremediation of Heavy Metals Contaminated Land—A Three-Year Experience

Heavy metal soil contamination is a worldwide problem. The affected sites could be either sites of a former industrial activity or arable land located in their vicinity. The presence of heavy metals in excessive quantities renders these sites idle or underused due to contamination and lack of efficient ways to remediate. Phytoremediation driven energy crops production may be a promising alternative for the management of these sites. A four year field experiment has been established on heavy metal (HM) contaminated sites located in Bytom, Upper Silesia Industrial Region, Southern Poland (arable land) and Leipzig, Germany (post-industrial site). The objective for this experiment was to distinguished energy crop species optimal with respect to both: energy crop yield and phytoremediation potential. The testing involves the following pre-selected plant species: miscanthus (Miscanthus x giganteus), virginia mallow (Sida hermaphrodita), cordgrass (Spartina pectinata), and switchgrass (Panicum virgatum). The experimental trials were established in May 2014. Both sites were treated as follows: (i) K—Control, no treatment; (ii) NPK—NPK standard fertilization, applied to the soil before the experiment; (iii) INC—Commercial microbial inoculum Emfarma Plus®, ProBiotics Poland. The presented data were collected after the third growing season; heavy metal uptake for each of the species and experimental options were determined. Levels of the bioavailable content of heavy metals in the soil seem to be the main factor responsible for the differences in the metal uptake by the plants. Plant species cultivated at the German site were characterized by low metal concentration in shoots, except P. virgatum which accumulated a high amount of zinc, even if the bioavailability of this metal in soil was low. The highest lead uptake was observed for M. x giganteus and P. virgatum, while the highest cadmium content was found for S. hermaphrodita grown on a contaminated arable soil in Bytom. Cultivation of energy crops on HM contaminated areas could be a solution for remediating these sites while increasing their economic value.

Marta Pogrzeba, Jacek Krzyżak, Szymon Rusinowski, Anja Hebner, Kathrin Kopielski, Sebastian Werle, Izabela Ratman-Kłosińska
The Formation of Particulate Matter During the Combustion of Different Fuels and Air Temperatures

Particulate matter (PM) belongs to significant pollutants threatening human health. Therefore, it is important to pay attention on these solid emissions. Several factors, such as type of fuel, quantity and temperature of the combustion air, operation conditions and design of heat source etc., influence on their formation. The aim of this work is investigation of fuel type and various inlet air temperatures on PM formation. The above mentioned parameters were measured in wood stove. In the first stage of the research, there were measured following fuels: beech, spruce wood, birch with bark and birch without bark. The results show that higher PM concentrations were measured during the combustion of birch with bark. The outcome of these analyses is the negative effect of bark on PM formation. In the second stage, there was investigated the effect of different combustion air temperatures on PM formation. Based on the measured results, it can be concluded, that temperature of combustion air has not influence on PM concentration, but it has influence on heat power.

Nikola Kantová, Radovan Nosek, Michal Holubčík, Jozef Jandačka
Increasing the Efficiency of the Process of Burning Wheat Straw in a Central Heat Source by Application of Additives

Straw belongs to heavier combustible fuels as it has low ash melting temperature. This article discusses the properties and effects of various additives suitable for application to straw in order to increase the ash melting temperature. From the laboratory-determined results of the application of various additives, the most suitable additive was chosen to improve the process of incinerating wheat straw in real conditions. This additive was calcium oxide. Testing of the additive was carried out in real conditions on operation of drying system situated near Nové Zámky. The drying system receives the heat from burning straw bales on the heat source. In the combustion process there are various problems due to the low melting temperature of ash straw. For this reason, slags and deposits occur in different parts of the combustion chamber and on the heat exchanger. These deposits must be removed at regular intervals, which cause heat source shutdown and drying. Addition of the additive on the surface of the straw bait was performed manually. The influence of additives on slags formation, thermal performance and emission production were measured during the experiment The results of additive testing have confirmed the positive effect of calcium oxide on the efficiency of the straw burning process.

Matej Palacka, Peter Vician, Jozef Jandačka, Michal Holubčík
Mathematical Model for Calculating Performance of Parabolic Through Collector

The work deals with the transformation of solar energy into thermal energy through concentric solar collector. The subject of the research is the parabolic trough collector situated in Žilina. Solar collector including focal absorber was produced according to our own design. The absorber consists of two black coated contradictory pipes serving as inlet/outlet of heat exchanger. The reflector is made of bent polished aluminium sheet. Collector uses automatic tracking system and consists of firm frame attached to concrete floor, which limits the sun tracking to one axis. Trough of the collector is oriented as east-west position with a small deviation of approximately 10°. To determine the required output of collector is necessary to perform optical and thermal analyses. The aim of the work is creating mathematical model to get a theoretical performance of collector. Mathematical model with calculations for specific collector and its geographical position is created in program MS Excel. Although the mathematical model provides theoretical performance parameters it doesn’t include the effect of environment and so the values differ from real conditions. The results of work will serve as an information basis for the following research of cogeneration system using a solar collector.

Peter Vician, Matej Palacka, Peter Ďurčanský, Jozef Jandačka
The Development of the Market of the Renewable Energy in Ukraine

One of the priorities of energy in the world is the use of the renewable energy sources. This paper examines the status and prospects of Ukraine’s energy market through the diversification of energy resources. The world experience in implementing the renewable energy sources of the main energy market participants has been revealed. The characteristics of the current state and prospects of the renewable energy in the world and in the European Union have been given. The state of energy usage in final gross energy consumption volume in Ukraine considering main areas has been analyzed and projections till 2020 have been made. The necessity of reducing the total primary energy consumption through the introduction of renewable energy sources has been shown. The existing resource potential for the implementation of energy efficiency and energy saving has been characterized. The document “REmap 2030” which made assessment and showed the projections for production capacity of the renewable energy in Ukraine until 2030 has been created. Active state regulation of the renewable energy in Ukraine is in progress. There exists the program “green tariff” that provides the acceleration of the renewable electricity. A system of measures to develop renewable energy for the period until 2020 has been adopted, which is reflected in the National Action Plan. There are examples of the work of the Ukrainian companies engaged in the production of the alternative energy sources to meet their own needs, as well as its sale to consumers in Ukraine and abroad. It is noted that the use of the renewable energy is an undeniable factor for the improving energy security and reducing the negative impact of energy on the environment. The prognostic potentiality and obstacles of the alternative energy sources production in Ukraine have been stated and possible solutions have been suggested.

Oleg Kucher, Liliia Prokopchuk
The Financial Efficiency of Biogas Stations in Poland

The aim of the paper is to give an overview of financial efficiency of biogas plants in Poland. The research presents the analysis of selected biogas stations in Poland such as Biogazownia Drozdowo Sp. z o.o., Biogazownia Ostrzeszów Sp. z o.o., Biogazownia Prusinowice Sp. z o.o., Spółka Rolna Dretyń Biogazownia Sp. z o.o. The hypotheses of the research states that the biogas stations with higher profitability ratios are characterized by higher level of liquidity. In Poland the most popular is the usage of biomass among renewable energy sources. Biomass is used to produce biogas in large and small agricultural biogas stations. The production of biogas takes place under anaerobic conditions involving the usage of a number of microorganisms.

Serhiy Zabolotnyy, Mariia Melnyk
The Influence of Weather Conditions and Operating Parameters on the Efficiency of Solar Power Collectors Based on Empirical Evidence

The influence of solar irradiance, ambient temperature and buffer tank temperature on the efficiency of solar collectors was evaluated in the climatic conditions of north-eastern Poland (climatic zone IV) characterized by relatively low irradiance (annual average of 900 kWh/m2). Two types of solar power collectors (flat-plate and evacuated tube collectors) were compared in terms of energy gains, collector efficiency and glycol temperature between May and September 2016. The collectors were mounted on the roof of a building on the campus of the University of Warmia and Mazury in Olsztyn. The roof had a pitch of 45°, the collectors had a tilt angle of 30°, and they faced west of true south. Measurements were performed separately for the analyzed solar collector systems operating simultaneously in identical weather conditions. The combined absorber surface was 4.64 m2 in flat-plate collectors and 3.23 m2 in the evacuated tube collector. Both systems were connected to a water buffer tank. Empirical data were recorded with a controller and were processed and stored in a computer. The factors responsible for differences in the efficiency of the examined collectors are discussed in the paper.

Aldona Skotnicka-Siepsiak, Maciej Wesołowski, Maciej Neugebauer, Janusz Piechocki, Piotr Sołowiej
Energy and Environmental Potential of Grasslands in Poland

Grasslands are crucial in the surrounding ecosystem. Over the last five years a share of grasslands in agriculture decreased from 3.32 m ha in 2010 to 3.00 m ha in 2015, contrary to the number of cattle—from 5.86 m LSU in 2013 to 5.96 m LSU in 2015. The cultivation of grasses, legumes or mixtures of grasses positively affects the reproduction of the soil organic matter, where a reproduction coefficient ranges from +0.95 to +2.10. Just to illustrate, the cultivation of cereals—about 0.5; corn—1.1; and roots—1.2. In the carbon dioxide balance the reduction of CO2 in grasslands is estimated to be 7 kg ha−1 h−1. Considering the diminishing area of grasslands, the objective of research was to estimate the quantity of carbon dioxide reduced by grasslands, the potential of unused biomass and the energy potential of grasslands. Those calculations have been conducted for Polish provinces over the last four years. Research estimates that the reduction of CO2 in meadows of grasslands in Poland amounted to 103.3 m Mg in 2016 with an upward trend over the last four years, whereas the potential of unused biomass equalled to 18.3 m Mg with a downward trend. The energy potential of grasslands was estimated for fuels such as briquette (82.4 PJ), torrefied biomass (62.5 PJ), and biogas (10.5 PJ) in 2016 with a downward trend over the last four years.

Wojciech Golimowski, Krystian Butlewski, Weronika Gracz, Damian Marcinkowski, Ryszard Konieczny
Review of Ash Deposition Coefficients for Selected Biomasses

Ambitious EU environmental policy decreasing CO2 emissions from combustion of fossil fuels impact on whole EU economy. Utilization of biomass as carbon neutral fuel helps to address these challenges Combustion and co-combustion of biomass, especially agriculture residue biomass, is associated with many technical problems such us: bed agglomeration, slagging and fouling, chlorine corrosion, decreased boiler efficiency which do not occur in conventional fossil fuels combustion. In this study six fuels were investigated on their deposition ability (2 types of straw, Miscanthus and herbaceous pellets, RDF—Refuse-Derived Fuel and reference coal). Biomasses were selected as the most commonly used in Polish and German power industry. Analysis comprised chlorine and sulphur contents of the fuel, ash oxides analysis and ash fusion temperatures. The main objectives of this work were to predict ash deposition tendency of chosen fuels using ash deposition indices and compare it with reference fuel. Next weaknesses of selected indicators are pointed out.

Waldemar Gądek, Sylwester Kalisz
Does Wetland Biomass Provide an Alternative to Maize in Biogas Generation?

The substantial amount of the agricultural biogas plants is now facing economical problems due to rising operational costs, which force them to quest for the cheaper alternative to silage maize. The aim of the study was to examine the biogas and methane yield of two wetland species: common reed and reed canary grass, and compare it to the biogas productivity of commonly used mixture of maize, poultry manure, and swine manure. In batch assay the methane yield of poultry manure was the highest and reached about 530 NL CH4 kg−1 VS. The methane yield of maize silage was lower and equaled to 435 NL CH4 kg−1 VS. Much lower values were received from reed canary grass and swine manure (204 and 171 NL CH4 kg−1 VS, respectively) and the lowest from common reed (148 NL CH4 kg−1 VS). Due to notably smaller biogas and specific methane yields grasses from landscaping are unlikely to wholly replace maize silage. However, they can be considered as interesting co-substrate, with methane productivity that is comparable to swine manure. Collecting grasses is relatively cheap, as it does not require fertilization and crop protection expenditure, while mowing of biomass can contribute to protection of biodiversity of wetlands and abandoned meadows.

Sławomir Roj-Rojewski, Agnieszka Wysocka-Czubaszek, Robert Czubaszek, Piotr Banaszuk
Analysis of the Potential of Methane Emission and Energy Power from Excrement of Livestock in Poland

The emission of methane has a share of 12% of the total emission of greenhouse gases in Poland. In Poland, methane is primarily emitted by such industries as transport, agriculture and waste management. Agriculture, in particular excrement from the animal production, has a share of 31% of the total emission of methane in Poland. The key sources of the gas emission are livestock’s enteric fermentation and the decomposition of animal excrement. Depending on the type of the livestock breeding system, its excrement may be classified into manure and liquid manure (bedding system) and slurry (non-bedding system). That excrement may be processed on an agricultural basis as manure according to the requirements of the Act on Fertilisers and Fertilisation. Manure permanently needs to be kept on sealed boards, whereas liquid manure needs to be stored in sealed tanks. One of the methods for restricting the emission of methane into the environment is to control the production and incinerate biogas that enables processing the animal excrement in a safe and energy effective manner. Therefore, the objective of the study is to analyse the potential of animal excrement and the potential of biogas energy power in Poland. For this purpose, the estimated quantity of electric energy and thermal energy that may be produced in biogas plants was calculated with respect to the potential of animal excrement. Research was conducted on the basis of the data obtained from the Chief Veterinary Inspectorate and from the Agency for the Restructuring and Modernisation of Agriculture. The livestock population (cattle, pigs and hens) was used for the calculations. The emission of methane from the animal excrement in Poland in the years 2013–2016 is stable and equals to 41,096 Mg per annum, whereas the energy power in 2016 was 37,625–85,180 MW of electric energy and 33,080–75,126 MW of thermal energy.

Weronika Gracz, Wojciech Golimowski, Krystian Butlewski, Damian Marcinkowski
A Fuzzy Model of the Composting Process with Simultaneous Heat Recovery and Aeration Rate Control

Composting is an effective method of managing biomass waste from agricultural crops and food processing. This exothermic reaction produces high-quality humus. Heat generated during composting can be evacuated from the compost pile and used effectively for other purposes. Effective methods are needed to control prism aeration and the evacuation of heat from the compost prism to maximize heat gain without compromising the composting process. A preliminary examination of fuzzy logic systems revealed that the terms of input and output variables and sharpening methods have to be adapted to specific compost materials. This approach also delivers immediate results without the need for lengthy research. The composting process lasts several weeks, therefore, models which illustrate the responses of control systems save time and support the selection of the optimal solutions for changing the aeration rate and heat consumption in feedstock. Fuzzy models of the control system developed in the LabVIEW programs are effective tools which can be directly implemented in a programmable logic controller (PLC).

Maciej Neugebauer, Tomasz Jakubowski, Piotr Sołowiej, Maciej Wesołowski
Variability of Soil Temperatures During 5 Years of a Horizontal Heat Exchanger Operation Co-operating with a Heat Pump in a Single-Family House

The paper presents the results of measurements of the temperature distribution of the ground source heat with the brine-water heat pump and a horizontal ground heat exchanger. The research was carried out for a period of 5 years. The horizontal ground heat exchanger is a ground source for a heat pump with the measured average heating output of 9.53 kW and cooling capacity of 7.8 kW, installed in a single-family house located in the north-eastern part of Poland. A heat exchanger with the area of 253 m2 is located at a depth of 1.9 m in the groundwater layer being in hydraulic contact with the waters of Lake Elk. During the first four years, each year it can be observed that soil of the ground heat source is chilling at a depth of 1.9 m, due to working heat pump. Between January and April heat pump was working with the ground source frozen, where the temperature ranged from −0.6 to −2.1 °C. Subsidence and cooling of the soil was caused by a relatively small active area of ground source of heat which was 253 m2 with the dimensions of 11 m × 23 m, as well as inadequate spacing between sections of the spiral heat exchanger amounting to 0.1 m. After operational testing of the heat pump and the ground source of heat, the “microBMS” a control and optimization system, working independently from the heat pump control was introduced into the building in January 2014. Its introduction has significantly increased that lower minimum flow temperature of the heat exchanger to +0.3–0.9 °C. There was also an increase of the minimum temperature of the ground source heat exchanger by the value of +1.3–3.0 °C and decrease in cooling of the soil in August—an increase of temperature by about 0.7 °C. Operational tests of heat pump system working with an unusual and original application of horizontal spiral heat exchanger have shown that in the first period introduction of an additional heat exchanger was considered. In subsequent years of heat pump operation and after the introduction of its independent monitoring and optimization, the study showed good properties of ground source and its complete recovery in the summer. Ground source, chilled properly to a temperature of about 0 °C became a very good cooling reservoir during periods of spring and summer heat. The use of the Earth’s heat helps to improve the environment, while in some way it violates the natural thermal and agrophysical condition of the ground. Operation of ground source heat pump affects the periodic changes of agro-thermal parameters of soil. The delay of the vegetation period above the horizontal heat exchanger of heat pump is about 13 days and is caused by postponed thawing of ground observed at 0.05 m.

Joanna Piotrowska-Woroniak, Wiesław Załuska
Examination of the Solar Air Heater Operating Parameters Equipped with the Swirlers

The aim of the solar air heater collector investigations was to conduct its operating parameters. The article shows the solution of its installation and presents the results of the analysis in real conditions. This type of device is equipped with the swirlers to increase the heat exchange and finally to gain more energy from the sun. This type of support elements are more and more popular in such devices. The air flow through the exchanger is forced by high flow ventilators. The test stand consists of inlet and outlet temperature data recorder and anemometer to control the air flow through the collector. The meteorological data such solar radiation, wind parameters, atmospheric pressure and the ambient temperature is obtain from Davies Vantage Pro2 weather station. The weather station was placed near the test stand. The analysis of the installation work was performed on the basis of monitoring of operating parameters conducted in time interval from April to September 2016. The results of energy analysis show the validity of such installation. It also helps to promote the other forms of energy generation and to reduce greenhouse gas emissions.

Miroslaw Zukowski, Grzegorz Woroniak, Andrzej Perkowski
Bio-fertilizers and Soil Health—An Approach Based on Balance of Elements in the Vegetable Cropping Sequence

It has been assumed that bio-fertilizers based on biomass ash and biogas leads to a depletion of soil macronutrients. This hypothesis was experimentally validated. Vegetables were grown in a cropping sequence of radish-green bean-radish grown on light soil and treated with two bio-fertilizers. They were both based on bio-ash and digestate (BAD) composed in contrasting ratio of 2.2:1 (FE1) and 1:2.2 (FE2) and phosphoric rock (15%). The BAD rates were as follows: 0, 20, 40, 80, 160, 320 g m−2. The total yield of crops was limited by an uptake of K, Mg, and Cu. The decisive role of these three elements can be explained based on the course of their balance with respect to the type and rate of BAD. The absolute value of a particular element balance increased progressively with BAD rates. As a rule, low BAD rates led to depletion, while high rates resulted in the enrichment of soil resources for most elements, including heavy metals. The only exception was Fe and Mn, which soil resources increased along all of the applied BAD rates. The K balance pattern indicates that its supply within BAD, irrespective of the rate, was too low to prevent the exhaustion of its soil reserves. The strong depletion of soil resources at low BAD rate, but element specific, were recorded not only for Ca and Mg, but also for Zn, Cu, Pb and Cd. It can be concluded that soil amendments based on bio-ash and digestate applied in low rates should be enriched with the nutrients, which are crucial for an intensive and healthy production of vegetables.

Katarzyna Przygocka-Cyna, Agnieszka Andrzejewska, Witold Grzebisz
Use of Solar Installations as a Way to Reduce Low Emissions

The paper presents the application of solar heating installation as an element contributing to the production of heat in a traditional coal heating plant. To reduce emissions from furnaces of individual households, it is advisable to opt out of this type of heating and, where possible, to connect to a central heating system fed from a heating plant. In this way, the fragmented heat generation, where control of the combustion process is ineffective, will be replaced by central heat generation where the local community’s nuisance is limited and the combustion process is controlled. In addition, the use of solar installations reduces the amount of coal burned and thus reduces harmful emissions. Renewable energy sources are characterized by the randomness of their use. It is often the case that potential uses (wind, sun) do not coincide with the time of energy demand. A solar installation working as a auxiliary element of coal boilers seems to be a good way to address the above mentioned deficiency of renewable energy.

Tomasz Wyleciał, Robert Starczyk, Henryk Otwinowski, Dariusz Urbaniak
Influence of Solar Installation on the Change of Fuel Structure of the Heating Plant

Poland as a member of the European Community is obliged to change its fuel structure on the energy market. This is a consequence of the accepted international obligations and concern for the environment. Changing the fuel mix should be aimed at reducing the share of coal, while increasing the share of renewable energy sources. Coal combustion is a source of harmful pollutants, while increasing use of renewable energy sources contributes to the improvement of the environment. The paper presents the use of a solar collector system as a supporting element of the process of heat production in traditional coal heating plants. The efficiency of the work of heating plant in particular months of the year is discussed. The impact of the solar installation on the change in the fuel structure of the heating plant has been assessed.

Dariusz Urbaniak, Tomasz Wyleciał, Robert Starczyk
The Use of Concentrated Solar Power for Heat Generation

Various systems have been developed for converting solar radiation into heat. Conventional lenses, Fresnel lenses and parabolic trough collectors are used to concentrate solar power and increase the efficiency of heat generation systems. Solar energy is converted to thermal energy in systems where sunlight is concentrated onto a small area to drive electrical power generators. The present study analyzes the applicability of solar parabolic trough collectors for heating water in a four-person household in Poland in accordance with the relevant standards. The correlations between the length of the trough collector, solar irradiation, the number of sunshine hours and the values of absorption and emission coefficients were determined. Concentrated solar power can be used to heat household water on a seasonal or annual basis, to heat indoor and outdoor swimming pools, to heat farm water in the production of crops and livestock and water in food processing plants.

Jolanta Fieducik
The Effects of Biomass Transport Between Plantation and Industrial Facility on Energy Efficiency of Biofuel Production System

Production of biofuels requires transportation of substantial amounts of biomass between plantations and industrial facilities that converts this biomass onto biofuel. This transport might strongly affect energetic effectiveness of the whole production system. Basing on computer model, developed in our earlier works, the contributions of the energy consumed in various transport solutions are analyzed, and their effects on the energy efficiency are estimated. The dependencies of the energy efficiency upon technical characteristics of transportation means are shown for several solutions of production organization. Conclusions suggest optimal choices of transportation means, and transport organization as dependent upon the type and the size of a plantation.

Andrzej L. Wasiak, Olga Orynycz
Unit Cost of Energy, Obtained by the Methane Fermentation Technology of Agricultural Biomass Conversion

Production of agricultural products results in appearance of a considerable amount of biomass residuals, which can be used as raw material for production of different kinds of energy. It can be differently utilized, obtaining different energy products. Development of the methodology of efficient utilization of agricultural production residuals for energy purposes is complicated by the fact that the biomass differs by its kind and origin, processing technologies and capacity of processing enterprises, etc. These issues should be solved separately for each kind of biomass, way of processing and production capacities. Methane fermentation is one of the efficient methods to converse biomass into energy products. Product of the fermentation process is biogas, which can be used as fuel for internal combustion engines, operating in cogeneration regime. Usually, droppings of animals and poultry are used as primary raw material for such processes, because its utilization is ecologically and economically needed. Under such conditions, it is possible to supply a minimum unit costs of the obtained energy. Generally, energy unit costs is calculated as a ratio of total expenses, minus costs of by-products and additional financial revenues, and amount of produced energy. The indicator will substantially depend on enterprise’s capacity, kind of anaerobic fermentation process, primary raw material. Methane fermentation produces biogas and large amount of organic matter, which can be specially processed and used as high quality organic fertilizer. The mentioned technology can supply high energy efficiency, comparing to other kinds of biomass utilization. Results of the calculations prove efficiency of operation of biogas installation with cogeneration module, costs of electric energy, produced on it, constitutes 0.012 EURO kWh−1 and thermal energy—0.003 EURO MJ−1. The price is almost six and four times lower than market price, respectively.

Kateryna Yankovska, Hanna Syrotyuk, Serhiy Syrotyuk, Ryszard Konieczny
Stimulatory Impact of Stymjod on Sorghum Plant Growth, Physiological Activity and Biomass Production in Field Conditions

The effects of a new generation ecological nano-organic-mineral fertilizer Stymjod made by PHU Jeznach Sp.J., Poland [1], applied 1 and 2 times to sorghum (Sorghum bicolor L.) plants at concentration of 0.1–3.0% on their growth in field conditions and physiological activity were studied, in order to explore the possibility of increasing energy biomass yield. Stymjod applied to plants, greatly increased dynamics of their growth, fresh and dry biomass yield. These improvements were associated with a greater activity of the selected physiological events which make the essential impact on plant development and production of biomass, including activity of enzymes: acid (pH = 6.0), alkaline (pH = 7.5) phosphatase, RNase and dehydrogenase. The growth of plants was related to the increased physiological activities in leaves, measured by the index of chlorophyll content, net photosynthesis, transpiration and stomatal conductance and intercellular CO2 concentration. The increased growth of sorghum plants and their biomass yield were determined by the percentage and number of applications of the studied biological compound to leaves. Stymjod applied to plants at concentration of 1.5–3% was most effective in increasing the plant growth, fresh and dry biomass yield and physiological activity in leaves than 0.1–0.75%. Similarly, its double application was more effective in improving growth of plants. The positive effect of Stymjod on development, biomass yield and physiological activity of plants indicates its suitability in sorghum cultivation, which may limit the use of synthetic fertilizers, favorably affect the environment and reduce the amount of toxic substances in plants.

Zdzislawa Romanowska-Duda, Mieczyslaw Grzesik, Regina Janas
Effect of Storing on Fertilizing Properties of Sewage Sludge

The disposal of sewage sludge may be combined with its economic utilization. It depends on the physical, chemical and microbiological characteristics of the substance and the manner of sludge treatment. Organic, but also inhibiting substances (pathogenic microorganisms, heavy metals, etc.) included in the sludge may determine the manner of its management or disposal, e.g. through agricultural utilization or combustion. In case of agricultural utilization, this manner of sludge management is also influenced by the specificity of agricultural cultivation and periods of the reclamation of agricultural lands. Thus, the problem of periodic storage and the possibility of its effects on changes of sewage sludge properties occurs. The article presents results of research concerning changes of basic fertilizing properties of sludge during its year-long storage in field conditions. The research analysed, among others, changes of the content of organic substance, organic carbon, nitrogen and phosphorus.

Marcin Landrat
Utilization of Waste from Methane Fermentation in Lemnaceae Plant Breeding Intended for Energy Purposes

The increase in environmental pollution caused by waste from agro-food industry and methane fermentation in biogas plants is currently one of the most serious problems. More and more governments launch programs supporting biogas plant construction and conversing biogas into electric energy. One of the methods to utilize the waste from methane fermentation in biogas plants is its utilization as a culture medium for breeding Lemnaceae aquatic plants. Water biomass can be diversely used in agriculture, energy production, phytoremediation and as animal feed. The plants Spirodela polyrrhiza were cultured in a phytotronic room at 24 °C. The medium was supplemented with various concentrations of leachate coming from the process of methane fermentation from biogas plants. The following physiological parameters were measured (i) plant gas exchange i.e. net photosynthesis (mmol H2O/m−2 s−1), transpiration (mmol H2O/m−2 s−1), stomatal conductance (mmol H2O m−2 s−1), and intercellular CO2 concentration (μmol CO2 mol air−1), (ii) index of chlorophyll content and (iii) fresh and dry matter. The obtained results justified the use of post-fermentation leachate to supplement the culture medium thus indicating the possible way of its utilization. This method can be an efficient way to recycle waste from methane fermentation in biogas plants, to develop a cost-effective system of high-quality water biomass production with an array of applications in production of liquid and gaseous biofuels, in agriculture (animal feed, fertilizers) and phytoremediation. This will decrease the costs and limit environmental pollution.

Zdzislawa Romanowska-Duda, Krzysztof Piotrowski, Piotr Dziugan
The Energy Efficiency in a Commune. The Formal and Legal Requirements with Examples of a Good Practice

The energy efficiency together with the utilization of renewable energy resources are considered to be crucial parts of a transition to the low-carbon economy. Their development can involve various administrative levels, nevertheless, the tremendous potential is assigned to a commune. Thus, the paper presents the most important formal and legal regulations that have an influence on the improvement of the energy efficiency, considering mainly obligations arising directly from the Energy Law and the Energy Efficiency Act. Moreover, the importance of the effective energy management in a commune is strongly emphasized, as the key for the low-carbon and resource-efficient economy. In the instance of the development of the energy efficient economy, many benefits are pointed out, and in case of the collaboration between neighboring communes, they are often multiplied at that. The particular examples of projects that have been realized in Polish communes of Niepolomice (the installation of renewable energy systems for public and private buildings) and Charasznica (the modernization of the street lighting), together with the indication of costs and profits relevant to the investment in the energy efficiency, as well as the environmental and socio-economic aspects, are also presented.

Barbara Tomaszewska, Anna Sowiżdżał, Anna Drabik
Evaluation of the Possibility of Use Geothermal Energy Micropiles TITAN 73/53 to Obtain Low-Temperature Heat Energy Accumulated in the Near-Surface Layers of the Ground in Poland Area

Increasing demand in the usage of low-temperature energy sources such as atmospheric air, ground, groundwater or wastewater, which are freely available in the environment, lead to seek new methods and technologies to obtain them. One of these are for example geothermal energy piles (GEP), foundation piles inside which a vertical exchanger is placed to exploit low-temperature geothermal energy. They gained growing popularity over past few years, because of modern assembly technology which allows to make them in any conditions during one technological process. The aim of the work was to estimate the possibility of use geothermal energy micropiles TITAN 73/53 to obtain low-enthalpy heat energy from near-surface layers of the ground in Poland area. Assessment was carried out based on Map of Geological-Engineering of Poland on a scale of 1:500,000, enriched with information gained from literature data and from TITAN Polska Company. Conducted analysis has shown that geothermal energy micropiles TITAN 73/53 in the most parts of the country can be used as very promising and cost-effective technology for more efficient, even 50% more than conventional, acquisition of relatively large amounts of heat energy accumulated in shallow layers of ground in Poland area.

Magdalena Tyszer, Barbara Tomaszewska
Municipal Waste Anaerobic Digestion in Poland

The objective of the paper was to analyse the current state and possibilities of municipal waste anaerobic digestion in Poland. The article shows the main legal and technological aspects that determine the circumstances of implementing this technology in Poland. So far in Poland only a few anaerobic digestion plants are operating, what in comparison to other European countries (e.g. Germany) is a poor result. The main way to deal with waste in Poland is landfilling which can be in many ways dangerous for the environment. The EU law have put pressure on Polish waste management systems for which anaerobic digestion technology can play significant role. This work analysis anaerobic digestion from legal and economical point of view together with predictions of potential as waste management option and renewable energy source. The biogas market has been presented from the perspective of market players. Conclusions show why in the current situation development of Polish anaerobic digestion infrastructure is right.

Maciej Cyranka, Michał Jurczyk, Krzysztof Dziedzic, Marcin Jewiarz, Bogusława Łapczyńska-Kordon
The Environmental and Technological Evaluation of Dyed DSSC Cells Production

The growing demand for electricity and decreasing fossil fuels resources are a driving factors for research on the technologies that use renewable sources of energy. Solutions that allow using photo-conversion, processing solar energy into electricity are currently going through dynamic development. It could be stated that during the operation phase photovoltaic modules are wastes-free technology, but production and processing after withdrawn from exploration are sources of different sorts of wastes. One of the best solution that gather focuses from scientists are dye-based photovoltaic cells DSSC. During the last decade, many researches gave many specific results that can be used in optimization of this technology. This manuscript discusses a method to expand the lifetime of the module, method to maximize its efficiency as well as reducing the amount of waste during production, use and final waste stage. Natural alternative materials which are possible to apply with current DSSC production technologies and modifications to each individual component of the photovoltaic cell are shown as well.

Milewicz Bartłomiej, Krzysztof Pikoń
Effectiveness of the Hydrogen Production, Storage and Utilization Chain

The paper evaluates the effectiveness of a power-to-gas hydrogen chain, comprising the production, storage and utilization sections. The production section is based on alkaline electrolyzers producing about 18.6 kg hydrogen per MWh supplied electric energy derived from renewable (wind) sources. Next, hydrogen is transported to an underground storage facility (UGF), assuming that the pressure of the produced hydrogen is sufficient to provide its transportation to the storage site. Energy demand required for hydrogen compression to the UGF is accounted for, and the maximum level of hydrogen losses is evaluated. Finally, three options for hydrogen utilization are considered: (1) hydrogen is co-fired in a gas turbine, (2) it is supplied to hydrogen vehicles, (3) it is used for process purposes replacing the existing production based on steam methane reforming. Moreover, energy effects related to the replaced oxygen production are optionally taken into account. It has been shown that the choice of a scenario (co-firing//vehicles/process application) and, to a lesser degree, the possibility of using the generated oxygen strongly affects the overall process performance which may vary between low values of 20% (energy generation), 70–80% for process application (replacement of steam methane reforming) and more than 90% for vehicle application (replacement of diesel fuel). In conclusion, the process may provide excellent energy performance for dedicated hydrogen users, and a less favorable yet still considerable option for energy storage for renewable sources.

Wojciech Kostowski, Sebastian Lepszy, Władysław Uthke, Mariusz Chromik, Arkadiusz Wierciński, Marek Foltynowicz, Tomasz Stendera
The Simulation of Temperature Distribution in a Ground Heat Exchanger—GHE Using the Autodesk CFD Simulation Program

The simulation of the temperature distribution in the ground heat exchanger was carried out using Autodesk Inventor and CFD Simulation programs. The “Inventor” program has built a ground geometry model of a heat exchanger based on an existing exchanger. CFD Simulation analyzes the effect of structures on airflow in two-phase (air-stone) air and bed temperature distribution. The program defines the materials that comprise the building, defines the boundary conditions and the initial operation of the ground heat exchanger. In order to optimize the work of the deposit, multi-variable scenarios with different initial parameters were designed: changing the temperature and speed of the air supplied to the exchanger. The section planes have been defined for visualization of air velocity vectors and additional cross-sectional planes with temperature field distributions. The obtained results of the temperature fields from the multivariant simulation were compared with the actual temperature distribution. The actual temperature distribution was obtained from the GHE digital temperature gauges installed at the time of assembly.

Jan Giełżecki, Tomasz Jakubowski
Torrefaction of the Black Lilac (Sambucus nigra L.) as an Example of Biocoal Production from Garden Maintenance Waste

The paper presents the conversion of the black lilac (Sambucus nigra L.), which is an example of garden plant residues coming from garden maintenance works into valuable energy carriers by using torrefaction technology. A laboratory reactor was built for the torrefaction process, which allowed black lilac chips to be roasted at a temperature ranging from 250 to 300 °C for several dozen minutes. The black lilac’s properties and structure were investigated before and after material torrefaction to identify the effect of this process on the plant. The average higher heating value (HHV) of the raw black lilac increased from 17.2 to 24.0 MJ/kg after torrefaction. The average mass yield amounted to 39–65%, while the energy yield amounted to 58–96%. The moisture of the black lilac after cutting and grinding was up to 50%, while after torrefaction it did not exceed 4%. Analysis using a scanning electron microscope and an optical microscope revealed the black lilac’s fibrous and annular structure with spherical inclusions, which changed following the torrefaction process into a flatter, more even structure with fewer inclusions. Elementary analysis revealed a significant decrease in the O/C ratio as a result of the torrefaction process. It was also found that the spherical inclusions were composed to a high degree of Ca, Al or Si elements. TGA analysis showed high volatile matter content in the raw black lilac, which decreased significantly after torrefaction. The study shows that torrefaction technology is a valuable process for the production of biocoal from garden maintenance residues.

Krystian Butlewski, Wojciech Golimowski, Weronika Gracz, Damian Marcinkowski, Maciej Waliński, Jacek Podleski
Harmful Environmental Impact of the Production Process of Photovoltaic Panels—A Review

Until recently, the main disadvantage of photovoltaics was the fact that from the perspective of ecology, it was more harmful than helping—the building of the cells required far more energy than they could generate. Although in a local scale it may have made sense and allowed to produce pure energy in a certain place, in the global perspective the balance was definitely negative. At present popular trend is promoted to use as a source of energy photovoltaic modules, but little is said about the harmful effects on the environment and human life of the production process of the PV cells. In the article, based on the available literature, the production process of silicon and tellurium-cadmium cells was analyzed. The production process has been described, with particular emphasis on the hazardous substances used in cell production, as well as by the toxic by-products of these processes. The type of environmental and human toxicity has been demonstrated and the possible ways of limiting this impact have been reviewed.

Marcin Landrat, Krzysztof Pikoń, Magdalena Bogacka
Experimental Studies on Energy Crops Torrefaction Process Using Batch Reactor to Estimate Torrefaction Temperature and Residence Time

Biomass of agricultural origin has the biggest potential from all kind of renewable energy sources in Poland because it provide continuous electricity generation, and is the only widespread source of renewable heat. In this paper an installation with a batch reactor was used to conductor experimental tests on three different energy plants by means of the torrefaction process: willow, Pennsylvanian mallow, and Jerusalem artichokes. Those energy plants were growing ion low-grade soils, which are abundant in Poland. Torrefaction or simply roasting of biomass is a thermal degradation of biomass structures by heating it a inert gas atmosphere like nitrogen under atmospheric pressure. This process removes low weight organic volatile components and moisture as well as depolymerises the long polysaccharide chains of biomass. To build up a demonstration plant for torrefaction process of energy crops plants the information concerning the specific temperature of caring the carbonization process for specific type of fuel and residence time should be provided in order to obtain the best C/H ratio in fuel, which is responsible for High Heating Value, carbonization level and best physico-chemical properties as a new fuel for energy production.

Szymon Szufa, Łukasz Adrian, Piotr Piersa, Zdzisława Romanowska-Duda, Mieczysław Grzesik, Artur Cebula, Sebastian Kowalczyk
Oxy-fuel Combustion of Wheat Straw Pellets in a Lab-Scale Fluidized Bed Combustor

This paper presents an experimental study on agro biomass pellets combustion in a circulating fluidized bed (CFB) under three oxy-fuel conditions (21%O2/79%CO2, 30%O2/70%CO2 and 40%O2/60%CO2) and air–fuel condition. The combustion of wheat straw pellets was conducted at a temperature of 850 °C in a 12 kW lab-scale CFB combustor. The main objective of this study was to investigate the combustion behaviour of wheat straw, in terms of particle temperature profiles, ignition time, volatiles combustion time and burnout time. The results of the tests show that the composition of the oxidizing atmosphere highly influences the combustion process of biomass fuels. Replacing N2 in the combustion environment by CO2 caused slight delay in the combustion of wheat straw pellets. The combustion process in O2/CO2 mixtures at 30 and 40% O2 is faster and shorter than that at lower O2 concentrations.

Monika Kosowska-Golachowska, Henryk Otwinowski, Krzysztof Wolski, Agnieszka Kijo-Kleczkowska, Tomasz Musiał, Katarzyna Środa, Damian Richter
Increasing the Energy Efficiency of Hybrid RES Installations Using KNX System

Buildings belong to the group of largest receivers of energy in the form of electricity and heat. Therefore, research and actions are needed to improve energetic performance of these objects. Renewable energy sources (RAS) help significantly reduce the use of energy from the primary sources and to reduce energy losses. In order to increase the possibilities of using these energy sources, hybrid generation system (HGS) have been introduced, which combine several technologies of obtaining electricity and heat (Paska et al. in Wiadomości Elektrotechniczne 12:3–13, 2005 [1]). These systems include small sets of cooperating units that produce electricity and heat based on different primary energy media (both renewable and non-renewable) and/or including system(s) of energy storage. The cooperation of the units is controlled and coordinated by advanced energoelectronic systems. The choice of energy sources to be applied in a particular building depends on the type and use of the building. Optimum energy system for a building should be controlled automatically, allowing full adjustment and management of the energy sources performance. Energy performance should be controlled based on the current and expected atmospheric conditions, as well as the current energy demand of the building. Data measuring, analysis and acquisition may be successfully carried out by the KNX system equipment. This equipment has an advantage of acquiring real-time data from various sensors in order to perform the necessary functions that improve the effectiveness of energy production. The KNX technology enables data storage and analysis on the energy production, its performance, profit and total energy saving. Cooperation with the elements of the building’s automatic systems allow to manage the load and, as a result, increase the building’s energetic performance.

Sławomir Sowa
Analysis of Wind Farm—Compressed Air Energy Storage Hybrid Power System

This paper presents a hybrid system which consists of wind turbines and compressed air energy storage (CAES) facility. The inclusion of CAES into an existing wind farm helps to control power output of the entire plant. Due to wind farm location the considered CAES system was assumed to be a small scale with above ground air vessels. Mathematical, dynamic simulation of CAES model was performed. Conclusions on annual co-operation of CAES systems with wind turbines are presented.

Marlena Wróbel, Jacek Kalina
Wind Power Engineering—Would a Well-Managed Investment Process Prevent Disputes Between the Local Authorities, the Investor and the Local Community?

One of the phenomena connected with the development of wind power engineering includes social skepticism related with its potential environmental impact and effect on human health. One of the essential elements, enforced by legal regulations, is the requirement of public consultations, which may refute or limit public concerns. This study presents an investment process in the Kramsk commune along with the results of a questionnaire survey conducted in the local community upon the completion of the investment project. It may be concluded that one of the characteristics of conscious society is its willingness to broaden their knowledge. In such a situation, thanks to the intensive educational efforts of the local government, local residents may acquire sufficient knowledge to cease being passive recipients of information, manifesting their hostile attitude towards investors. In contrast, the may actively engage in the investment process and show positive attitudes to the development of renewable energy sources, as well as other future investment projects.

Angelika Górczewska, Jacek Leśny
Experimental Research and Thermographic Analysis of Heat Transfer Processes in a Heat Pipe Heat Exchanger Utilizing as a Working Fluid R134A

This article presents the experimental results of a heat pipe heat exchanger for the lower temperature range of 15–50 °C. It is worth noting that the heat pipes, thanks to the wide temperature range and high efficiency, can soon be used in building engineering. Recognizing the processes taking place in their interior and their work is essential especially in the era of striving to reduce heat loss and avoid unnecessary energy dissipation. The goal of this work was to carry out research and analysis of heat pipes and process condition by the need to save primary energy in both civil engineering and industry. The results show the effects of phase changes for the R134A refrigerant as well as the effect of its amount on the heat and power of the heat pipe. One of the main objectives of the study is to analyze the efficiency of heat pipes for different amounts of working fluid at different temperatures in both the evaporator section (heat delivery) and the condenser section (heat transfer). The paper presents the results of research on real heat exchanger made from copper 1769 mm tube, 18 mm diameter and 1 mm wall thickness. The study involved placing a heat pipe in a tube heat exchanger in a tube to deliver and receive heat to and from a heat pipe.

Łukasz Adrian, Piotr Piersa, Szymon Szufa, Artur Cebula, Sebastian Kowalczyk
Geothermal Energy in Poland. Selected Aspects of Geothermal Resources Development

Geothermal energy is an ecological, renewable energy source. However, its effective utilization depends on many different factors, related to (i) hydrogeothermal conditions of the region, (ii) proper design of the investment and (iii) formal and legal framework. The characteristic features of geothermal investments are high investment expenditures resulted mostly from high drilling costs of geothermal wells. Hence, the critical element facilitating the utilization of geothermal energy is the financial support in the form of government grants or loans. Recently, geothermal resources in Poland are relatively underdeveloped as only 6 geothermal plants are in operation together with spa-and-wellness, and therapeutical centers. Geothermal potential confirmed by extended scientific studies is much higher, particularly in the Polish Lowlands where both the Lower Cretaceous and the Lower Jurassic aquifers reveal favourable hydrogeothermal conditions suitable for effective development of geothermal resources. The following paper presents the currently recognized geological conditions, which control the size of geothermal resources and macroeconomic determinants (financial support, energy prices), which control the operation of geothermal installations in Poland.

Anna Sowiżdżał
Kinetics of Drying Silver Birch (Betula pendula Roth) as an Alternative Source of Energy

The aim of the work was to study the kinetics of drying silver birch shoots with three different diameters, and compare the results with the results obtained from mathematical modelling of the drying process. The work also discusses biomass as a renewable resource of energy, with special emphasis on wood as energy fuel. Also, drying process as well as modelling were described in greater detail. The aim of the work was realized based on the conducted laboratory experiments, for which shoots of silver birch with the diameter of 1, 2 and 3 cm were used. They were dried at the temperatures of 40, 50, 60, 70 and 80 °C. Based on the obtained results, the following were determined: water content of the samples and the difference between the real water content in the samples and the content obtained from the mathematical model by determining the relative error of the model. The work also contains graphical analysis of the obtained results.

Szymon Głowacki, Weronika Tulej, Małgorzata Jaros, Mariusz Sojak, Andrzej Bryś, Rafał Kędziora
Analysis of Potential Related to Grass-Derived Biomass for Energetic Purposes

According to the climate energy package of the EU, biomass is and will be the most important source of energy of all renewable resources of energy (RRE). Experts from the European Association of Biomass estimate that it will be caused by tree-fold increase in demand for this source of energy (Gradziuk in Gospodarcze znaczenie i możliwości wykorzystania słomy na cele energetyczne w Polsce. Wyd. Instytut Uprawy Nawożenia i Gleboznawstwa - Państwowy Instytut Badawczy w Puławach, 2015, [1]). In Poland, the wastelands cover 475,000 ha (Central Statistical Office of Poland. Statistical Yearbook of Agriculture, 2016, [2]), and could be used as a source of biomass, e.g. for biogas plants or for briquette production. Waste grass from green areas such as parks, gardens, garden plots, and biomass from roadsides (motorways and highways) should also be taken into account. The amount of waste changes annually as it depends on vegetation, weather, method of green areas and gardens nurturing. Green waste is mainly produced from spring till autumn, and the amount produced during these seasons is much higher than in winter (Jędrczak, Biologiczne przetwarzania odpadów. Wydawnictwo Naukowe PWN, Warszawa, 2007, [3]). Therefore, grass briquetting is desirable as briquetted grass may be used throughout the year. One of the most important stages of briquette production is drying raw material, i.e. grass.

Andrzej Bryś, Joanna Bryś, Szymon Głowacki, Weronika Tulej, Paweł Zajkowski, Mariusz Sojak
Energy Characteristics of Compacted Biofuel with Stabilized Fraction of Municipal Waste

An analysis of the energy characteristics of compact biomass formed from biomass of giant miscanthus and the stabilized fraction of municipal sewage sludge, depending on the percentage of stabilization. Five types of compacted fuel with a content of 5–25% stabilization at three moisture contents of 12, 15 and 18% were subjected to the evaluation of energy properties. Standards for solid biofuels were used. The created biofuel was subjected to a combustion process to determine a preliminary analysis of the kinetics of the process. Based on the research, it has been shown that biocompatible fuel can be generated with a maximum additive of a stabilized fraction of municipal waste up to 10%. The proposed additive does not significantly affect the reduction in the calorific value of compact fuel. In addition it allows the recovery of energy contained in waste and it is an alternative to their disposal. The moisture content of the test mix should not exceed 15%.

Beata Brzychczyk, Tomasz Hebda, Jan Giełżecki
Influence of Internal Deposits on Diesel Engine Injectors on the Parameters of the High Pressure Common Rail System (HPCR)

The complexity of the deposits formation process on the components of compression ignition engine, including high-pressure injection Common Rail systems, is gaining global significance. Knowledge related to the mechanisms of their formation and chemical composition is still insufficient and requires further studies. The studies allowed, hypothetically, assuming several mechanisms of their formation, but each of these require further research in order to be verified and finally confirmed. This is due to high complexity of the factors and conditions that may affect the initiation of the deposit formation, of which the most important are: fuel and additive composition and type of contaminants from fuel production and transport. Deposits’ physical nature may vary, as these may be soaps, salts of metals or ashless materials like imide or amide forms of organic polymers. This article contains the results of the research on the assessment of HP Common Rail injector and EGR components contamination and their technical condition, after 120 thousand km operational run, with the use of diesel and biofuel B10.

Bogusław Cieślikowski, Janusz Jakóbiec
An Analysis of Municipal Waste Management in a Selected Urban Municipality on the Basis of Selectively Collection

The qualitative and quantitative analysis of waste from groups 15, 17, and 20 covering 10 types of the waste collected in the years 2014–2015 in the city with a population of more than 50,000 people, showed a significant increase of their mass by 415.55 Mg, despite a slight increase in the number of inhabitants. Seasonal variation in the amount of waste collected, with particular regard to the spring season, occurred during the analysed period. The highest (48%) share of waste collection was classified in group 15, and when broken down into predominant types the highest (34%) was glass packaging waste. Likewise, the highest achieved values for the daily collection rate of 0.038 kg per capita−1, and the annual collection rate of 13.9 kg per capita−1 were related to glass packaging waste and showed a general increase. A low, 6% share of bulk waste was characterised by a significant value of standard deviation. The statistical analysis of the study results confirmed a high positive correlation showing the increase of waste most often classified to group 17. This increase of waste in the analysed area of the city has confirmed the gradual effectiveness of the implemented system solutions in the waste management.

Grzegorz Przydatek, Danuta Kamińska, Kinga Kostrzewa
Determination of Methyl Mirystate Content in Biofuels Using NIR Spectroscopy

Liquid biofuels of the second generation can be considered fuels produced from non-edible raw materials, i.e. fried oils and animal fats. At the same time, recognizing biofuels of such origin as fully valued requires that their physicochemical properties be similar to traditional diesel. Due to the limited supply of non-edible fats and dispersed sources of their production, the production of biofuels on an industrial scale is economically unjustified. The good thing is local production. For this reason, cheap, easy to use biofuel quality assessment methods for small production sites should be developed. The objective of this study is to construct calibration models with the least squares regression (PLS) method adopted for the prediction of the content of methyl myristate (concentration from 0 to 5%) in rapeseed oil methyl ester (RME) on the basis of the obtained absorption spectra within near infrared range. The mean-squared error of the predictor that equals to 0.05% will be used to apply the developed calibration models to assess the quality of biofuels according to the standard PN-EN 14214.

Damian Marcinkowski, Mirosław Czechlowski, Weronika Gracz, Krystian Butlewski, Wojciech Golimowski
Development of Small Agricultural Biogas Plants in Poland. The Evaluation of Technical and Economic Conditions

This article covers the scope of preparatory work for the study of two designed biogas plants consisting of fermentation chambers. On the Polish market there are no original solutions for biogas installation dedicated to the small farms that take into account their specific characteristics. The concept of modular biogas installation has been developed in the Institute of Technology and Life Sciences, a solution in the form of two types of biogas installation for processing liquid substrates such as pig and bovine manure. The first variant, a mono-substrate reactor tank includes a filling that increases the surface area of microorganisms. The second variant was conducted under the Biostrateg 2 project “Developing innovative technologies complex utilization of waste generated during the fattening pigs” and uses a reactor, with a pump for lifting liquid which is patent protected. In order to estimate the energy efficiency of these two variants, the theoretical balance of energy needed to efficiently carry out the fermentation was calculated.

Edyta Wrzesińska-Jędrusiak, Łukasz Aleszczyk
Design and Development of a Didactic Mobile Installation with Solid Fuel Boilers and a Heat Pump

The emission of dust and pollutants from coal-fired boilers is the main source of air pollution in the Malopolska Region. This is due to the low awareness of inhabitants, particularly in suburban and rural areas, of the need for outdated heating systems and non-energy efficient houses to use considerable amounts of energy. The authorities of the region undertake activities aimed at educating and raising the awareness of the inhabitants. The AGH University of Science and Technology is a natural partner in these activities, especially in the field of education and popularization of energy efficient solutions. One of them is a mobile educational installation designed by AGH in cooperation with the boiler and heat pump producer Galmet. The construction of the installation was supported by a grant from the National Fund for Environmental Protection and Water Management. The leader of the project is the Foundation for the Support of Ecological Initiatives. The main aim of the designed installation is for didactic/educational purposes in the field of air quality and pollution reduction connected with the utilization of coal fired boilers with various efficiency classes, according the PN-EN 303-5:2012 standard. The whole installation is in a 4-wheel trailer adapted to conduct the measurements and present the results. The installation consists of two solid fuel boilers (a boiler with an automatic fuel feeder and a boiler with a manual fuel loading), heat pump, heat buffer, radiator and connection fittings (valves, pipes, circulation pumps, etc.). This allows the comparison of working conditions and pollutant emissions from each boiler. The system measures the level of pollution, analyzes exhaust gas and presents the results via a visualization system which allows mobile research to be conducted. This paper presents the methods of our research and focuses on the issue of low emissions and their impact on our environment and the inhabitants of Małopolska.

Grzegorz Pełka, Wojciech Luboń, Jarosław Kotyza, Daniel Malik, Paweł Jastrzębski
Design and Development of a Didactic and Research Stand for Exploitation Tests Under Defined Conditions

To develop the laboratory of renewable energy sources in Miękinia, a new stand with a heat pump was created. The main aim of this stand is to increase the range of research in the Laboratory. This stand consists of: a heat pump module,a module to simulate the parameters of the heat source and heat sink,a module to display and register data and a remote control.This creates opportunities for research about the efficiency of heat pumps in reference to present standard PN EN 14511 and previous standard PN EN 255. The data allows us to define the impact of the methodology described in the standards on the coefficient of performance. This stand is able to calculate the coefficient of performance according to set parameters of work, like temperature of heat source, temperature of heat sink or difference between inlet temperature and outlet temperature on the heat sink side. There is also research about the effect of the superheating of refrigerant on the efficiency of heat pumps. All of the research with this stand is intended to examine the efficiency of heat pumps. This stand was also made for didactic purposes. It has the possibility to show the following, how the heat pump works, how the refrigerant circulates inside the heat pump, and what happened with the refrigerant in elements of a heat pump like a compressor, evaporator, condenser, expansion valve. There is also the possibility to show the dependence between the coefficient of efficiency and the temperature of the heat source or heat sink.

Wojciech Luboń, Grzegorz Pełka, Jarosław Kotyza, Daniel Malik
An Innovative Air—Water Heat Pump with Ecological Refrigerant

The heat pump market is growing year on year and more than 20,000 units were sold in 2015 alone. The majority were air to water heat pumps for heating or for only warming up domestic hot water utilizing inside air. The project ordered by Kołton S.C. company, co-funded by Regional Operating Programme 2014–2020 of the Lesser Poland Region, was conducted in the AGH-UST Educational and Research Laboratory of Renewable Energy Sources and Energy Saving in Miękinia and had the following goals: defining the type of air-water heat pumps, determining the refrigerant, design, developed and testing the prototype. According to EU F-gas regulations, the use of refrigerant with high GWP (Global Warming Potential) will be limited. It was one of the reasons to develop a heat pump using an environmentally friendly and natural refrigerant—R290. The type of construction used in the heat pump is monobloc, which simplifies the installation. It uses components dedicated for R290, such as a scroll compressor, evaporator and condenser, 4-way valve, electronic expansion valve, etc. The first tests of the device gave the following results: for an air temperature of 2 °C and a water temperature of 35 °C the heating power was 13.2 kW and COP was 3.69. Further tests will be conducted to optimize the parameters of the heat pump and the controlling algorithm.

Grzegorz Pełka, Wojciech Luboń, Daniel Malik, Krzysztof Kołton, Wojciech Kołton
Modelling of PV Power Station Exploitation Process, Supporting Wastewater Treatment Plant Energetic System

The paper presents a new method for determining the indicator of energy demand coverage from PV micro power station. For verification process we applied this method in wastewater treatment plants. The investigated parameter was the electricity demand of these facilities. The developed method is based on two indicators $$ W_{I(t)} $$ and $$ W_{P(t)} $$, respectively the insolation and the power demand index. Mean annualized data were used to develop the insolation index, while the power demand index was based on actual power demand of wastewater treatment plant. Once the load profile has been defined, it has been modified by the signum function to the day/night interval, and then the power demand indicator has been determined. The intersection point of these two indexes developed on a common basis can be interpreted as a degree of energy demand coverage of objects with known load profile. Described author’s methodology was verified in the first six months of the first half of the year in the rural wastewater treatment plant, which is integrated with a 100 kW PV micro power station. The energy demand of the plant treatment in each month exceeded the model’s value for about 10–17%. That was caused by 30% PV power station oversizing.

Kurpaska Sławomir, Knaga Jarosław, Bernacik Robert, Nęcka Krzysztof
Use of Straw as Energy Source in View of Organic Matter Balance in Family Farms

The paper presents possibilities of using straw as an energy source with reference to the organic matter balance. We carried out the survey in 30 family farms by means of calculation of the amount of the produced straw and its management trends. We determined that 7 farms were selling all produced straw for energy purposes and in the remaining ones, straw was used in animal production or ploughing up. In farms, which were selling straw for energy purposes, a negative organic matter balance was reported. Ploughing up of straw would allow obtaining a positive value of the OMB [Organic Matter Balance] in 5 out of 7 farms. The calculations enabled us to state that designation of straw for energy purposes in farms, which use it in agricultural production or ploughing up, would cause reduction of organic matter balance to negative values in majority of these farms. Therefore, straw may be designated for energy purposes only in these farms, where the organic matter balance (without straw) is at a satisfactory level or after—crops designed for ploughing up are cultivated. Statistical analysis proved that despite an additional income from selling straw, both the final production and standard gross margin do not differ significantly from those obtained in farms which use straw in agricultural production.

Maciej Kuboń, Sławomir Kocira, Anna Kocira, Danuta Leszczyńska
Storage of Heat Excess from a Plastic Tunnel in a Rock—Bed Accumulator: Tomato Yield and Energy Effects

The paper presents the outcome of experimental research which was carried out in real conditions on tomato production in a plastic tunnel. Plastic tunnels with dimensions of 9 × 30 were covered with double PE plastic with an air insulation layer. Devices responsible for microclimate inside the facility were controlled with a climate computer. Two facilities where tomatoes were cultivated in the April–October cycle were analysed. A rock-bed accumulator was installed in one of the tunnels. The system of heat accumulation comprised elements which suck hot air from the upper part of the facility and the system which distributes heated air to the plant zone. Heat storage in the accumulator was performed with the use of an autonomous control system. This system, based on the algorithm, controlled both the charging and discharging process including the set parameters of the microclimate inside the facility. The energy effects (the amount of heat, parameters of the microclimate inside the tunnel), issues concerning drying and humidification of air pressed through the stone bed and the amount and quality of tomato yield were analysed. The effects of accumulation were calculated into fuel consumption and the reduction of hazardous substance emitted to atmosphere was calculated. Moreover, the obtained effects in the form of plant yield were presented.

Sławomir Kurpaska, Hubert Latała, Paweł Konopacki
Geophysical Methods in the Recognition of Geothermal Resources in Poland—Selected Examples

Seismic and magnetotelluric methods are most frequently used under Polish conditions predominant by low temperature geothermal associated with sedimentary complexes and crystalline rocks. The application of those methods to recognizing of geological structure and differentiation of petrophysical parameters is presented in the work. The examples of hydrogeothermal investigation in sedimentary complexes of Polish Lowlands and crystalline rocks of Sudetes area are used. The results demonstrate that seismic structural interpretation and seismic inversion can effectively support the selection of areas optimal for future geothermal investments inside sedimentary complexes. Simultaneously, such methods can be important for determination of hydrogeothermal parameters of particular aquifer. Results of seismic inversion can be applied to porosity estimations. Within the crystalline rocks non—seismic methods are usually used, mainly different variants of magnetotelluric method. This method allows to recognize resistivity distribution in geological medium. Geothermal reservoirs inside crystalline rocks are usually connected with fractured tectonic zones conducting warm and mineralized water. Such zones appear as low resistivity at the background of predominant, radically high resistivity rocks.

Michał Stefaniuk, Tomasz Maćkowski, Anna Sowiżdżał
Modeling and Simulation of Biomass Drying Using Artificial Neural Networks

Willow (Salix viminalis) is a moist material after the crops. Therefore, the content of water in this type of material has to be lowered by drying before any further mechanical or thermal processing, in order to increase its calorific value. The process of drying is energy-intensive. Thus it is advisable to search for optimal methods and parameters of drying. The optimisation requires evolving a model that is based on the crucial parameters of the process. One of the possible solutions is to apply models of Artificial Neural Networks. Artificial Neural Networks belong to the group of methods of artificial computational intelligence and are often used in modelling various phenomena and processes. The aim of this work was to develop models using Artificial Neural Networks to describe the process of convective drying of the willow woodchips. As a result of presented work we obtained neural models describing alterations of water content, changes of the temperature and the mass of the chips. The presented models are highly accurate. We used experimentally obtained data in order to validate the models. It is important to underline that the data were not applied while the artificial neural networks were being developed. Subsequently, the models were used to simulate the process of drying what allowed us to define the optimal parameters of drying willow woodchips characterised by different moisture content.

Sławomir Francik, Bogusława Łapczyńska-Kordon, Renata Francik, Artur Wójcik
Analysis of Possible Application of Olive Pomace as Biomass Source

The aim of the study was to determine the use of stored olive pomace as a solid biomass for energy purposes. The samples were collected from olive pomace pile stored for three years on Agricultural University in Cracow campus. Samples were taken from three heights and then standardized for each of them. Work has been done to compare energy properties such as calorific value, depending on the sampling depth of the material from the prism.

Sławomir Francik, Adrian Knapczyk, Renata Francik, Zbigniew Ślipek
Energetic Potential of Apple Orchards in Europe in Terms of Mechanized Harvesting of Pruning Residues

One of the new sources of biomass acquisition for energetic purposes are apple orchards. In apple orchards the biomass is generated mainly during the regular tree pruning. In the paper the energetic potentials (theoretical, technical and economic) for 28 EU countries are determined. The analysis was performed basing on the Eurostat database and accepted assumptions as well as considering the application of mechanized harvesting technology of pruned residues. Taking into account the size distribution area of the apple orchards in Europe, pruning losses and high heating value of wooden material the results indicated that the total energetic potentials are: 29.11 PJ/year for theoretical, 22.50 PJ/year for technical and 18.63 PJ/year for economic. However, these potentials are significantly scattered in Europe and vary from 5.90 PJ/year in Poland (economic potential) to 0.00 PJ/year for Malta. Moreover, ten countries cover the available economic potential in height of 87%. Finally, it was underlined that before the application of the mechanized harvesting technology of the pruning residues in the orchard by the farmer, the economic and market demand analysis should be performed to evaluate the profitability and market expectation.

Arkadiusz Dyjakon, Krzysztof Mudryk
Using Photovoltaic Cells for the Large-Panel Urban Fabric Revitalization, Based on Select Neighborhoods

The aim of this paper is to present possible ways in which the process of large-panel urban fabric revitalization can be combined with renewable energy technologies. The social studies conducted in recent years confirm that the residents are interested in the above solutions. Alternative energy sources may help create a new brand of prefabricated apartment blocks. The geometry of modular apartment block buildings allows for uninhibited distribution of the cells on roofs and side walls of specific structures. Additionally, thanks to their South-Western position, the performance of the cells should be perfectly satisfying. The energy surplus would mainly be used to illuminate the intersections, such as hallways and entrances. This would help save money, which would benefit the entire community. Another benefit of the solution is aesthetics. The cells on the side walls can help add an interesting layer to the large-panel buildings that have become so infamous over the years, while also averting the overabundance of mismatched pastel colors. The studies conducted confirmed the assumptions and the implemented solutions will help not only add to the innovative aspect of post-modern buildings, but also protect the natural environment.

Jarosław Zawadzki
Physical and Chemical Properties of Pellets Produced from the Stabilized Fraction of Municipal Sewage Sludge

The physico-mechanical properties of compact biomass formed from biomass from the giant biomass power plant and the stabilized fraction of municipal waste have been studied. The strength properties study was carried out on pellets formed from mixtures containing 5, 10, 15, 20 and 25% stabilizer and moisture content of 12, 15 and 18%. Modified biofuel has been tested for energy properties. The heat of combustion, calorific value and ash content were determined according to the proportion of pelletized stabilizate.

Beata Brzychczyk, Tomasz Hebda, Jan Giełżecki
The Research into Determination of the Particle-Size Distribution of Granular Materials by Digital Image Analysis

The granular materials, in particular fragmented biomass and cereal grains, are widely used in the power industry, the food industry, and agriculture. These materials are subjected to various processing methods and automated transport processes, which encourages implementation of fast tools (methods) for evaluation of the basic physical properties of these materials. The particle-size distribution is one of the basic characteristics of granular materials. The classic measurement methods are very time-consuming. Digital Image Analysis (DIA) provides new possibilities for quick, real-time measurements. The paper presents the study of the possibility of using DIA to determine the particle-size distribution of granular materials. The results obtained with DIA showed correlations with the actual particle-size composition at the values ranging from 0.63 to 0.89 R2.

Artur Wójcik, Wioletta Przybyła, Sławomir Francik, Adrian Knapczyk
The Dynamic Model of Willow Biomass Production

The paper presents methods and tools for building computer simulation models for supporting decision-making activities. The cultivation of energy crops for biomass production is a continuous process in which delays are very important along with other factors the values of which may denote a function of many parameters. The harvest of energy plants is a discrete process, so the simulation must combine both of these processes. The paper presents the method of constructing a model for growing energy crops and interprets conclusions resulting from the operation of the model, for changing values of the decision parameters.

Artur Wójcik, Krzysztof Krupa, Bogusława Łapczyńska-Kondon, Sławomir Francik, Dariusz Kwaśniewski
Possibility to Utilize Fish Processing By-Products in the Context of Management of Non-renewable Resources

Fish processing generates considerable amounts of waste which constitutes a potential threat to the environment. The aim of this paper was to assess the possibility to use processing waste for anaerobic digestion and to use the generated digestate for fertilization purposes. This research involved evaluation of chemical composition of waste from a carp processing plant and of the digestate after methane fermentation. The content of dry matter, organic carbon, nitrogen, and other macroelements was determined in the samples. Moreover, the content of trace elements was determined. Dry matter content in the studied waste was 40%. Nitrogen content was approximately 5.56%, phosphorus—1.758%, calcium—0.4%, whereas mean potassium content was 0.502 g kg−1. As a result of conducting methane fermentation, a reduction in nitrogen content by about 50% and a considerable increase in quantity of almost all elements were observed. A high zinc content was recorded in the digestate, whereas concentration of other microelements was at a level close to the one in natural fertilizers. Concentrations of heavy metals did not exceed permissible values for organic fertilizers. The studied material can be a component for fertilizer production, and its fertilizing value depends mostly on nitrogen and phosphorus content.

Marcin Niemiec, Krzysztof Mudryk, Jakub Sikora, Anna Szeląg-Sikora, Monika Komorowska
Influence of Storing Miscanthus x gigantheus on Its Mechanical and Energetic Properties

The purpose of the study was to analyze the effect of storage of a Giant miscanthus on its mechanical and energy properties. The research material came from an experimental plantation of the Faculty of Production Engineering and Energetics of the University of Agriculture in Cracow. It was compared to plant material stored under cover where it was protected from atmospheric agents such as rain, snow and wind. The studies compared energy properties such as calorific value, moisture content and ash content. The second part of the research was used to determine selected mechanical properties—unit destructive force. Measured calorific value in two groups was: storage = Yes: 16,568 [kJ/kg], storage = No: 15,897 [kJ/kg]. Mean values of Pj (unitary destructive force) for stored and not-stored miscanthus were different. For X1—storage = Yes Pj = 48.27 [N] and for storage = No Pj = 40.73 [N].

Adrian Knapczyk, Sławomir Francik, Artur Wójcik, Grzegorz Bednarz
Analysis of MSW Potential in Terms of Processing into Granulated Fuels for Power Generation

Due to its morphological composition which includes mostly combustible material (plastics, paper, textiles, etc.), municipal solid waste is potentially a valuable raw material for use in power generation. On the other hand, content of incombustible fraction (glass, metal, rocks, etc.) reduces its value, particularly when solid municipal waste must be processed into the form of granulate as in case of co-combustion with coal in pulverized-fuel or fluidized-bed boilers. The process of granulation reduces also the costs of logistics processes such as transport, storage and handling. That is why the research carried out in the framework of “EkoRDF—an innovative manufacturing technology of alternative fuel from municipal waste for power and heating plants—a key component of the Polish waste management system” financed by Polish Centre for Research and Development (GEKON Programme) aimed at determining the MSW potential not only in terms of use in power generation, but mainly from the point of view of technologies of converting the waste into granulated fuels for power generation units. The test material comprised oversize and undersize fractions of municipal solid waste obtained from four sources (sorting plants). The morphological and grain-size analyses were carried out, and the parameters important from the point of view of power generation were determined (moisture content, calorific value, volatile matter content, ash content). The impact of those parameters on key stages of RDF production from waste (drying, comminution and granulation) were analysed. The analysis led to determination of acceptable raw material parameters for use in production of fuel granulates dedicated to burning in power generation units.

Marcin Jewiarz, Jarosław Frączek, Krzysztof Mudryk, Marek Wróbel, Krzysztof Dziedzic
Characterization of Selected Plant Species in Terms of Energetic Use

The paper presents the characteristics and analysis of the usefulness of selected biomass, obtained from different plant spices (Silphium perfoliatum L., Helianthus salicifolius A. Dietr., Sida hermaphrodita Rusby). The botanical characteristics of the species surveyed from North America was presented. It has been shown that these species meet the requirements for plants intended for so called Energy crops, as they are characterized by high yield, disease and pest resistance and low habitat requirements. The basic physical properties of biomass were determined, like moisture content during harvesting, specific density, ash content, net calorific value. The paper also presents a comparison of the research results obtained by determining the fuel quality indicator. It has been shown that the best parameters are willowleaf sunflower biomass, and the worst is the biomass obtained from cup plant.

Marek Wróbel, Krzysztof Mudryk, Marcin Jewiarz, Szymon Głowacki, Weronika Tulej
Influence of Plant Biomass Added to Sewage Sludge on the Product Energy Potential

The authors of this study aimed at evaluating the influence of plant biomass added to sewage sludge on the product energy potential. In order to improve its physical properties, sewage sludge was mixed with wheat straw, sawdust, and bark of conifers. Materials with a natural water content were mixed at 1:1 weight ratio on a dry matter basis. The scheme of the experiment was as follows: sewage sludge without any additions (SS), sewage sludge + wheat straw (SS + WS), sewage sludge + sawdust (SS + S), sewage sludge + bark (SS + B). The moisture of materials, the contents of volatile matter, combined carbon, heat of combustion and calorific value were determined in the study. The addition of plant biomass to sewage sludge reduced the moisture content and increased the volatile matter content compared to sewage sludge without such addition, in which case the variation was relatively low. For the studied mixtures, larger variations were observed in relation to the ash and combined carbon contents. The highest contents of ash and combined carbon were found in the mixture of sewage sludge and bark. The highest value of heat of combustion was determined in the mixture of sewage sludge and sawdust (14,000 J g−1). Calorific values of the mixture of sewage sludge and wheat straw and sewage sludge and bark were 13,640 J g−1 and 11,540 J g−1, respectively, and were higher by more than 40% on the average compared to the calorific value of sewage sludge without any additions.

Krzysztof Gondek, Monika Mierzwa-Hersztek, Krzysztof Dziedzic, Marcin Jewiarz, Krzysztof Mudryk, Marek Wróbel
Influence of Parameters of the Torrefaction Process on the Selected Parameters of Torrefied Woody Biomass

The aim of this study was to determine the effect of time and temperature of torrefaction on selected parameters of torrefied woody biomass. The research material was willow and black locust biomass. First species representing the tree of soft wood and second is representative of hardwood trees. The selected species belong to a group of trees cultivated on energy purposes in so-called short rotation. The biomass samples were dried to a humidity of 10% and then was specified the calorific value, heat of combustion, specific density, ash content and volatiles matter. Characterized samples were subjected to torrefaction process in a special research reactor. In the study was planned the torrefaction temperature range 200–300 °C and the duration of the process in the range of 1–3 h which resulted in products of biomass torrefaction about the different degree of the carbonization, which were characterized by the same parameters as before biomass torrefaction.

Marek Wróbel, Joanna Hamerska, Marcin Jewiarz, Krzysztof Mudryk, Marzena Niemczyk
Innovative Production Technology of High Quality Pellets for Power Plants

The paper presents the results of studies related to the development of quality pellet production technology for the power plants. Presented results shows that the addition of sulfur and kaolinite to the biomass does not significantly affect the basic quality parameters obtained from such pellet mixtures. There is a slight increase in ash value in these pellets, but this is directly related to the fact that kaolinite is a non-combustible mineral material. It has been shown that at the expense of increased ash content in the tested pellets, kaolinite addition virtually eliminates ash slag at all tested incineration temperatures. In the case of pellets from “pure” biomass, this unfavorable phenomenon has already occurred at 1000 °C. The results clearly show that independent of the amount of added sulfur (2 and 5%), the addition of 3% kaolinite effectively prevents ash from slagging in low temperature. Granulation of biomass, supplemented with additive to prevent slagging of ashes, should be regarded as effective and innovative technology of production of granular solid biofuels, which do not cause usual risk of boiler boiler heat exchange surfaces. This technology allows the generation of safe, solid biofuels from a wide range of biomass types available on the market.

Krzysztof Mudryk, Marek Wróbel, Marcin Jewiarz, Grzegorz Pelczar, Arkadiusz Dyjakon
Energy Islands as a Potential Source of Securing the Energy Supply of Bio-Feedstock for Biogas Plants

The aim of this study was to determine the possibility of building energy islands in the Małopolskie Voivodeship. Their primary source of energy would be the agricultural biogas plants. Such actions result from the necessity of limiting the use of conventional energy, as well as the interest in Renewable Energy Sources (RES), which leads to the search for alternative solutions. To some extent, such actions should secure both national and local energy management. One of the possible solutions includes biogas plants, which is mainly attributable to the raw material resources. The use of co-fermentation from different feedstock fractions increases the possibility of energy production, while reducing the amount of waste from the agri-food industry and the out-of-date food.

Maciej Kuboń, Jakub Sikora, Elżbieta Olech, Anna Szeląg-Sikora
Analysis of the Combustion Process of Selected Wood Biomass

Combustion process of selected woody biomass was investigated. Four types of woody material were used for conducted experiments: poplar, pine, acacia and willow. European Union policy concerning Renewable Energy Resources (RE) is a response to increasing pollution of our globe, and, simultaneously, it introduces additional, independent supplies of energy. With the introduction of legal obligations that regulate these norms, countries that did not have appropriate percentage share of renewable energy had to comply with these regulations by implementing appropriate projects that would allow for supplies of renewable energy shortly. The work presents ecological aspect of selected materials, by showing differences in fuels obtained from woody biomass used in the experiments. It was analyzed the ash and volatile matter content and also calorific value. The experiments also show, which dendromass has the best energetics parameters, and which produces the least pollution. Poplar had the highest net calorific value (18,633 J/g), but during poplar combustion, the highest concentration of carbon oxides and nitrogen oxides was found.

Szymon Głowacki, Weronika Tulej, Mariusz Sojak, Andrzej Bryś, Jakub Kaczmarczyk, Marek Wróbel, Marcin Jewiarz, Krzysztof Mudryk
Evaluation of Selected Species of Woody Plants in Terms of Suitability for Energy Production

The paper presents results of research on selected fuel quality parameters of five species of woody plants. On the basis of the obtained results an assessment of the suitability of the examined species for energy purposes was carried out. The research material was biomass of willow, poplar, alder, black locust and ashleaf maple. Determined: Moisture content after harvest and after seasoning, ash content, bark and wood content in shoots, gross calorific values and specific density were determined. The research methods used are in line with the guidelines for quality testing of solid biofuels.

Anna Karbowniczak, Joanna Hamerska, Marek Wróbel, Marcin Jewiarz, Krzysztof Nęcka
Assessment and Development Perspectives of Solar Energy in Khmelnytskyi Region

Condition and development perspectives of solar energy in Khmelnytskyi region are considered in the article. The analysis of information regarding solar power is conducted. There were given characteristics and potential of the region, of existing and new solar power plants.

Vasyl Ovcharuk, Olena Doroshenko, Yaroslava Babiy, Andriy Stepas′
Biogas Production as a Component of Green Energy Generation

The article is dealing with biogas production as a component of Green Energy generation, along with issues and prospects associated with biogas production in Ukraine. Biogas role in mitigating energy dependency, in creating new jobs and improving the environment is investigated.

Yulia Ievstafiieva, Viktoria Levytska, Dmytro Terenov
Energy Parameters’ Calculation of a Hybrid Heat Supply System for a Private House in the Conditions of Western Part of Ukraine

In the article the power supply scheme of a private house was developed for the Western Ukraine region conditions with Sun energy usage and soil thermal energy. It was evaluated the annual heat-flux density of the scheme. The solar collectors are justified and selected The parameters have been calculated and the heat pump was chosed The proposed hybrid system of heat supply for a private house with the solar energy usage and soil heat can save more than 5 thousand cubic meters of natural gas per year, which will bring the corresponding economic effect. The payback period of the necessary additional capital investments is just over 6 years.

Yurii Pantsyr, Ihor Garasymchuk, Taras Hutsol, Ivan Gordiychuk
The Prospects of Solving Energy Issues by Local Self-government in Podilya Under the Territorial and Administrative Reform Conditions in Ukraine

The first steps of decentralization in Ukraine are described in the article. State legislative initiatives to enhance local self-government, issues and achievements of voluntary united local communities are described in the article. It is noted that for the purpose of revenues to local budgets it is appropriate to carry out energy saving measures. Wide implementation of renewable energy sources, including biomass, is offered in the article. It is noted that Khmelnytskyi region has favorable natural and economic conditions for the implementation of energy willow plantations as local renewable energy sources. On the example of a particular local community there is reflected an actual use of natural gas and solid fuel during the heating season of 2016–2017 and possibility of creating energy willow plantations and use of chopped wood for heating of social sphere premises are grounded.

Vasyl Vakhnyak, Igor Ryhlivskiy, Valerii Havryliuk, Valery Tarasyuk
Spread Mustard and Prospects for Biofuels

The paper presents research aimed to determine the potential of waste biomass from the processing of mustard. Raw material for research came from the central part of Ukraine. Studies have shown that mustard residues are a valuable raw material for the production of solid biofuels in the form of briquettes or pellets. Values of quality parameters (such as calorific value, durability, density) are comparable to those found in commercial solid biofuels. Analysis of ash content showed an increased content of mineral fractions, which were the source of plant surface impurities applied by atmospheric agents (rain, wind).

Tetyana Kozina, Olena Ovcharuk, Ivan Trach, Viktoriya Levytska, Oleg Ovcharuk, Taras Hutsol, Krzysztof Mudryk, Marcin Jewiarz, Marek Wrobel, Krzysztof Dziedzic
Prospects of Growing Miscanthus as Alternative Source of Biofuel

The paper presents the results of research work aimed at determining process parameters for production of quality briquettes from Miscanthus raw material. Raw material was obtained from southern Ukraine from the autumn harvest. The obtained results clearly indicate that adequate grinding, humidity reduction of less than 15% and application of agglomeration pressures above 37 MPa, results in obtaining satisfactory quality briquettes. Compliance with the developed technological assumptions should not in practice lead to technical problems that will have a significant impact on the dissemination of this activity in rural Ukraine.

Volodymyr Ivanyshyn, Ulyana Nedilska, Veronika Khomina, Rita Klymyshena, Vasil Hryhoriev, Oleg Ovcharuk, Taras Hutsol, Krzysztof Mudryk, Marcin Jewiarz, Marek Wróbel, Krzysztof Dziedzic
Conceptual Design of the RDF Granulation Line

The paper presents a concept of a technological line for the production of granulated fuel from RDF. The main assumption of the line is the complexity of processing a raw RDF with very variable input parameters (morphological and granulometric composition, proportion and type of impurities as well as variable moisture content) to a pellet with high quality parameters (specific density, mechanical durability). Based on an analysis of the raw material characteristics and preliminary research on the RDF granulation process, design guidelines and assumptions were proposed. This allowed to develop a block diagram including all technological operations which must be used to process raw material. For each operation a technical solution was proposed which best fulfills the stated assumptions. A vacuum transport system of raw material has been proposed to reduce the amount of fly dust generated during the production process. This system is equipped with a central filter from which the dust is driven for re-granulation. Such system, reduces production of waste byproducts. As the pelletizing unit, a developed by the authors pelletizer with modified dye was proposed. Thanks to this solution, the granulation process will proceed in the temperature about 100 °C. Beside recommended moisture content and fineness of the raw material, high temperature helps ensure the predetermined quality of pellets.

Marek Wróbel, Jarosław Frączek, Krzysztof Mudryk, Marcin Jewiarz, Krzysztof Dziedzic
Agglomeration of Ash-Based Fertilizer Mixtures from Biomass Combustion and Digestate

The production of fertilizers based on high quality waste materials is a highly important problem in environmental protection, mainly due to the protection of natural mineral resources. In addition, the combination of organic and mineral raw materials makes these fertilizers innovative in the fertilizer economy. As the research material unique mixtures of mineral and organic substances mixture were used. The main components were ash from biomass combustion power plant in the Połaniec and the digestate from a biogas plant located in Piekoszów. Sulfur and phosphorite were used as components to enhance the fertilizer value of the tested prototype blends (variant A). There were also blends supplemented with urea (variant B) to add nitrogen to composition. During the tests the energy consumption of the granulation process was determined and the quality of the obtained granules was determined by specifying envelope density, bulk density and mechanical durability.

Krzysztof Mudryk, Jarosław Frączek, Marek Wróbel, Marcin Jewiarz, Krzysztof Dziedzic
Erratum to: The Financial Efficiency of Biogas Stations in Poland
Serhiy Zabolotnyy, Mariia Melnyk
Metadata
Title
Renewable Energy Sources: Engineering, Technology, Innovation
Editors
Dr. Krzysztof Mudryk
Dr. Sebastian Werle
Copyright Year
2018
Electronic ISBN
978-3-319-72371-6
Print ISBN
978-3-319-72370-9
DOI
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-72371-6