Safety Measures for Hydrogen Fueling Stations

Hydrogen is a key enabler in the global transition to sustainable energy systems, offering high energy density, zero emissions, and long-term storage capabilities. Its role in achieving net-zero carbon goals is underscored by its ability to integrate with renewable energy sources like wind and solar, addressing challenges such as energy intermittency and supporting diverse applications. This chapter introduces hydrogen (re)fueling stations (HRSs) as critical infrastructure in the hydrogen economy. It highlights the physical properties of hydrogen that necessitate unique design, safety, and operational considerations and compares hydrogen and natural gas properties. Additionally, the chapter provides an overview of HRS structures and the technical components, and then it discusses the challenges of introducing and managing HRS to set the stage for the risk management strategies detailed in the subsequent chapters.

This chapter provides an overview of relevant studies published in scientific journals that address the safety of hydrogen refueling stations as well as an analysis of the operating experience. These studies, presenting multiple perspectives, levels, and approaches, point out the necessity of covering the entire sociotechnical spectrum to ensure the safe operation of these facilities, which are crucial for the deployment of hydrogen vehicles. Importantly, the sociotechnical approach understands safety as a factor resulting from the interaction of technical systems (such as equipment, systems, and processes), human factors (including operators, organizational design, and safety culture), and social factors (such as regulatory and legal considerations).

Assessing the societal impact of hydrogen energy and its supporting refuelling infrastructure offers critical insights for promoting broader hydrogen energy applications in a socially accepted manner. This chapter provides an introductory overview of a case study examining public risk perceptions of hydrogen refuelling stations and the corresponding information-seeking preferences, which inform the development of communication strategies to foster public engagement and support.

Hydrogen, with its unique physiochemical properties, presents distinct challenges for safety and risk management across its value chain. This chapter outlines a multidisciplinary framework for risk management tailored to hydrogen applications, emphasizing its use as a fuel in hydrogen refueling stations. A thorough examination of the social, economic, and environmental sustainability pillars forms the foundation for a proposed risk management framework. The chapter also addresses the limitations of current quantitative risk assessments due to a lack of hydrogen-specific data and emphasizes the need for advanced leakage detection systems and robust safety measures. The proposed framework provides a comprehensive approach to managing hydrogen-related risks, as the foundation of the following chapters.

Hydrogen-based mobility and other applications highly rely on the development of a robust hydrogen refueling infrastructure. However, some hazardous properties of hydrogen, including its wide flammability range, low ignition energy, and explosiveness, raise significant safety and reliability concerns for the deployment of refueling stations. This chapter reviews past accidents in hydrogen refueling stations (HRSs) and water electrolysis, using data from the Hydrogen Incident and Accident Database (HIAD) 2.1. Eighteen incidents were analyzed, with focus on their causes, consequences, injuries, fatalities, and lessons learned. It was found that major accidents, including explosions, were mostly due to corrosion, electrolyzer failures, and incompatible materials, while fires and hydrogen releases were linked to defective parts and leaks. Although HRS accidents were more frequent, water electrolysis plant incidents had more severe outcomes. The analysis identifies common failure modes and suggests preventive measures, emphasizing continuous monitoring, proper material testing, strict protocols, comprehensive risk assessments, and training programs.

The chapter presents potential safety problems in hydrogen refueling stations, which are mainly caused by uncontrolled hydrogen leakages, as well as how these hazards can be analyzed. Firstly, the severity of the leakage is determined. Basing on the mass and the pressure of the leaking hydrogen, one may evaluate the range of the cloud formed by the leakage. This cloud is the space for a potential fire or explosion. Then, the size of a fire or an explosion is evaluated for chosen locations of the source of ignition. This analysis allows to understand the severity of hazardous events.

The global transition to sustainable energy systems has positioned hydrogen as a critical energy carrier. While its benefits, such as high energy density and compatibility with renewables, are clear, integrating hydrogen into existing infrastructure poses significant safety and reliability challenges, particularly related to material degradation mechanisms like hydrogen embrittlement and hydrogen-enhanced fatigue. Traditional risk-based inspection (RBI) methodologies, which optimize maintenance efforts based on component risk levels, fall short in addressing the complexities introduced by hydrogen environments. This chapter introduces HyRIS (Risk-Based Inspection Strategy for Hydrogen Technologies), an innovative framework that integrates artificial intelligence (AI) with conventional RBI practices to address hydrogen-induced degradation mechanisms. By leveraging machine learning models, HyRIS predicts the probability and severity of fatigue-induced failures, enabling precise risk assessments and tailored inspection strategies. The chapter details the methodology’s principles, its applications to hydrogen pipeline integrity, and its broader implications for ensuring the safe and reliable operation of hydrogen infrastructure. The integration of AI with RBI frameworks represents a transformative approach to managing the risks associated with hydrogen, supporting its role in the energy transition.

Current research emphasizes the need for examining safety through a sociotechnical lens, particularly in high-risk organizations, where safety emerges from the complex interplay of social and technical factors. This chapter pretends to stress out the significance of human behaviour and organizational practices specifically in the context of hydrogen fuelling stations (HRSs). By recognizing the vital contributions of these factors, we can better understand how to enhance safety measures and foster a culture of safety in this emerging industry. The understanding of the interaction between human actions, organizational structures, and technological systems is essential for preventing incidents and promoting a safer operational environment.

This chapter deals with the risk assessment for hydrogen installations. Two methods are presented. The first one aims to describe the risk in qualitative terms. Probabilities of failures and severities of the failure consequences are described using relative scales. The latter method is more complex and tends to determine the risk for the area with hydrogen structures. Risk evaluated for a specific location is determined by all risk-generating structures according to hazardous scenarios. Once each hazard is accounted for, the total risk is the combination of risk from different structures depending on the distance from that structure. This approach allows to determine the most hazardous area and then rearrange the layout of a hydrogen installation in order to decrease the resulting risk.

This chapter explores the critical role of safety barrier management in hydrogen refueling stations. Using Acoustic Emission Testing (AET) for Type IV composite overwrapped pressure vessels (COPVs) as a case study, the chapter presents the integration of Human Reliability Analysis (HRA) and Bayesian Network (BN) modeling in continuous evaluation and support of safety barriers. The study identifies tasks such as sensor performance evaluation and test completion as critical points sensitive to human errors and performance-shaping factors. These findings highlight the need for robust operator training, intuitive interfaces, and adaptive environmental controls to enhance barrier effectiveness. Additionally, the study emphasizes the importance of maintaining barrier independence and robustness, as well as fostering a proactive safety culture within organizations. The integration of digital technologies such as machine learning and real-time data analytics is proposed to improve defect detection and predictive insights, providing a pathway for advancing hydrogen safety management. By aligning these methodologies with established safety theories, the chapter offers a comprehensive framework for improving safety barrier management in hydrogen storage systems and other high-risk industrial applications.

The objectives of this chapter are to present the technical safety barriers that are used in hydrogen fueling stations and introduce methods for evaluating the performance of these barrier systems. Design principles and operational modes of technical safety barriers are discussed, followed by the introduction of failure modes. Dangerous undetected failures are the main contributor of unavailability of technical safety barriers. The chapter provides a framework of reliability and integrity assessment of such barriers in hydrogen fueling stations. Since the applications of relatively new and existing reliability information are not sufficient, reliability prediction is necessary. This chapter then employs approximation formulas and the Markov methods for integrity assessment, with case studies on pressure relief valve systems using single barrier components and 1-out-of-2 voting structures. The impact of common cause failures is also considered in the case studies.

This chapter explores the academic discussion surrounding emergency preparedness for hydrogen system accidents, with a focus on hydrogen refueling stations (HRS). It synthesizes recent research and offers practical recommendations to address key challenges and gaps in accident response strategies. The discourse presented emphasizes the importance of a comprehensive, proactive approach to safety, outlining specific measures to manage incidents involving hydrogen systems. A key takeaway is the value of a capabilities-based approach to preparedness, which provides a structured framework for identifying and addressing potential risks. By prioritizing risk identification, capability development, and collaborative planning, stakeholders can strengthen their resilience to hydrogen system accidents, minimizing their impact on people, property, and the environment. The chapter also highlights the iterative nature of emergency preparedness, emphasizing continuous improvement and adaptability to evolving risks and technologies. The active involvement of all relevant parties, including first responders and facility operators, is crucial to maintaining effective emergency management systems. The discussion concludes with future research directions, including the integration of advanced technologies into emergency response frameworks, as well as the exploration of simulation-based training, multi-agency coordination, and public communication strategies for enhancing preparedness and response to HRS accidents.

Achieving global sustainability requires transitioning to low-carbon energy sources, improving energy efficiency, and reducing dependence on fossil fuels. The transportation sector, responsible for over one-third of CO₂ emissions from end-use sectors, plays a pivotal role in this transition. Hydrogen-powered fuel cell electric vehicles (FCEVs) offer a promising solution by providing zero-emission alternatives, especially for long-distance and heavy-load transportation. When powered by green hydrogen produced via renewable energy sources, FCEVs enable a clean energy cycle, aligning with the IEA’s Net Zero Scenario targets. However, several challenges hinder widespread adoption, including high hydrogen production costs, underdeveloped refuelling infrastructure, and significant investment requirements. The interdependence between FCEVs and hydrogen refuelling stations (HRFs) is critical, as the expansion of infrastructure fosters greater adoption of hydrogen-fuelled transportation. This chapter examines the current state of FCEVs and HRFs globally, with an emphasis on hydrogen production costs, retail prices, and infrastructure challenges. A case study evaluates the economic feasibility of HRFs powered by hybrid renewable energy systems in regions with high wind and solar potential. Results highlight significant regional variations in hydrogen production costs, underscoring the importance of location and technology selection. Despite challenges, the development of cost-effective hydrogen infrastructure and renewable energy integration can accelerate the global transition to sustainable transportation. This study provides valuable insights for policymakers and investors to optimise project costs and promote hydrogen technologies as a cornerstone of a fossil fuel-free transportation future.

Green hydrogen is expected to play a crucial role in decarbonizing the energy system. Hydrogen refuelling stations are one of the key elements in the large-scale deployment of green hydrogen. However, the decarbonization strategy is usually only evaluated in the usage phase of green hydrogen. To investigate the climate change impact and mitigation potential of the deployment of green hydrogen in the sector of transport, life cycle assessment (LCA) is introduced in this book. Firstly, this chapter illustrates the framework of LCA, covering its concept, targets, and categories of life cycle impact, as well as its methods (assessment procedure, databases, software, etc.). Secondly, the system of the hydrogen refuelling station is analysed and examples of the inventories of key components of the hydrogen refuelling station are displayed. Thirdly, a case study of LCA for the EU deployment of green hydrogen in transport towards 2050 is demonstrated. Process-based LCA is conducted within four designed scenarios (with green hydrogen, with blue hydrogen, without green hydrogen, and baseline). The analysis shows that green hydrogen wins on the climate impact compared to the other two decarbonization scenarios and baseline by 45–86% climate mitigation potential. Finally, a future framework for assessment of green hydrogen deployment is proposed, which includes LCA other assessments such as non-climate impacts, hydrogen leakage, risk analysis, and integrating with multi-dimension sustainability analysis.