1 Introduction
2 Measuring Diversity
2.1 Prior Measures and Datasets
2.2 Using Survey Data to Investigate Diversity
Round 1 | Round 2 | Round 3 | Round 4 | Total | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Austria | 2,257 | 2,256 | 2,405 | – | 6,918 |
Belgium | 1,899 | 1,778 | 1,798 | 1,760 | 7,235 |
Bulgaria | – | – | 1,400 | 2,230 | 3,630 |
Croatia | – | – | – | 1,484 | 1,484 |
Cyprus | – | – | 995 | 1,215 | 2,210 |
Czech Republic | 1,360 | 3,026 | – | 2,018 | 6,404 |
Denmark | 1,506 | 1,487 | 1,505 | 1,610 | 6,108 |
Estonia | – | 1,989 | 1,517 | 1,661 | 5,167 |
Finland | 2,000 | 2,022 | 1,896 | 2,195 | 8,113 |
France | 1,503 | 1,806 | 1,986 | 2,073 | 7,368 |
Germany | 2,919 | 2,870 | 2,916 | 2,751 | 11,456 |
Greece | 2,566 | 2,406 | – | 2,072 | 7,044 |
Hungary | 1,685 | 1,498 | 1,518 | 1,544 | 6,245 |
Iceland | – | 579 | – | – | 579 |
Ireland | 2,046 | 2,286 | 1,800 | – | 6,132 |
Italy | 1,207 | 1,529 | – | – | 2,736 |
Latvia | – | – | – | 1,980 | 1,980 |
Luxembourg | 1,552 | 1,635 | – | – | 3,187 |
Netherlands | 2,364 | 1,881 | 1,889 | 1,778 | 7,912 |
Norway | 2,036 | 1,760 | 1,750 | 1,549 | 7,095 |
Poland | 2,110 | 1,716 | 1,721 | 1,619 | 7,166 |
Portugal | 1,511 | 2,052 | 2,222 | 2,367 | 8,152 |
Romania | – | – | – | 2,146 | 2,146 |
Spain | 1,729 | 1,663 | 1,876 | 2,576 | 7,844 |
Slovakia | – | 1,512 | 1,766 | 1,810 | 5,088 |
Slovenia | 1,519 | 1,442 | 1,476 | 1,286 | 5,723 |
Sweden | 1,999 | 1,948 | 1,927 | 1,830 | 7,704 |
Switzerland | 2,040 | 2,141 | 1,804 | 1,819 | 7,804 |
Turkey | – | 1,856 | – | 2,416 | 4,272 |
United Kingdom | 2,052 | 1,897 | 2,394 | 2,352 | 8,695 |
Total | 39,860 | 47,035 | 38,561 | 48,141 | 173,597 |
2.3 Comparing Existing with New Measures of Diversity
2.3.1 Representation of Foreigners in the ESS
% Foreigners (Eurostat) | % Foreign born (ESS) | Difference | |
---|---|---|---|
Austria | 0.09 | 0.08 | 0.01 |
Belgium | 0.08 | 0.09 | −0.01 |
Bulgaria | 0.00 | 0.01 | −0.01 |
Cyprus | 0.11 | 0.07 | 0.04 |
Czech Republic | 0.02 | 0.03 | −0.01 |
Denmark | 0.05 | 0.06 | −0.01 |
Estonia | 0.19 | 0.20 | −0.01 |
Finland | 0.02 | 0.03 | −0.01 |
France | 0.06 | 0.09 | −0.03 |
Germany | 0.09 | 0.08 | 0.01 |
Greece | 0.08 | 0.09 | −0.01 |
Hungary | 0.01 | 0.02 | −0.01 |
Ireland | 0.06 | 0.09 | −0.03 |
Italy | 0.03 | 0.02 | 0.01 |
Latvia | 0.23 | 0.14 | 0.09 |
Luxembourg | 0.39 | 0.30 | 0.09 |
Netherlands | 0.04 | 0.08 | −0.04 |
Poland | 0.00 | 0.01 | −0.01 |
Portugal | 0.02 | 0.06 | −0.04 |
Romania | 0.00 | 0.01 | −0.01 |
Slovakia | 0.00 | 0.03 | −0.03 |
Slovenia | 0.02 | 0.08 | −0.06 |
Spain | 0.05 | 0.07 | −0.02 |
Sweden | 0.05 | 0.11 | −0.06 |
United Kingdom | 0.05 | 0.10 | −0.05 |
Total | 0.07 | 0.08 | −0.01 |
2.3.2 Comparing Regional Diversity with National Diversity
National diversity | Regional diversity | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Ethnic | Linguistic | Religious | Origin | Linguistic | Religious | |
Austria | 0.11 | 0.15 | 0.41 | 0.15 | 0.06 | 0.21 |
Belgium | 0.56 | 0.54 | 0.21 | 0.16 | 0.51 | 0.22 |
Bulgaria | 0.40 | 0.30 | 0.60 | 0.02 | 0.25 | 0.36 |
Croatia | 0.37 | 0.08 | 0.04 | 0.16 | 0.01 | 0.14 |
Cyprus | 0.09 | 0.40 | 0.40 | 0.12 | 0.04 | 0.03 |
Czech Republic | 0.32 | 0.32 | 0.66 | 0.06 | 0.02 | 0.25 |
Denmark | 0.08 | 0.10 | 0.23 | 0.11 | 0.04 | 0.13 |
Estonia | 0.51 | 0.49 | 0.50 | 0.33 | 0.43 | 0.54 |
Finland | 0.13 | 0.14 | 0.25 | 0.04 | 0.12 | 0.07 |
France | 0.10 | 0.12 | 0.40 | 0.17 | 0.10 | 0.24 |
Germany | 0.17 | 0.16 | 0.66 | 0.15 | 0.07 | 0.57 |
Greece | 0.16 | 0.03 | 0.15 | 0.16 | 0.07 | 0.07 |
Hungary | 0.15 | 0.03 | 0.52 | 0.04 | 0.01 | 0.43 |
Iceland | 0.08 | 0.08 | 0.19 | 0.06 | 0.01 | 0.16 |
Ireland | 0.12 | 0.03 | 0.16 | 0.17 | 0.05 | 0.10 |
Italy | 0.11 | 0.11 | 0.30 | 0.04 | 0.24 | 0.03 |
Latvia | 0.59 | 0.58 | 0.56 | 0.25 | 0.42 | 0.70 |
Luxembourg | 0.53 | 0.64 | 0.09 | 0.50 | 0.50 | 0.43 |
Netherlands | 0.11 | 0.51 | 0.72 | 0.16 | 0.09 | 0.62 |
Norway | 0.06 | 0.07 | 0.20 | 0.12 | 0.09 | 0.20 |
Poland | 0.12 | 0.05 | 0.17 | 0.03 | 0.00 | 0.03 |
Portugal | 0.05 | 0.02 | 0.14 | 0.11 | 0.02 | 0.07 |
Romania | 0.31 | 0.17 | 0.24 | 0.01 | 0.14 | 0.22 |
Slovakia | 0.25 | 0.26 | 0.57 | 0.05 | 0.20 | 0.32 |
Slovenia | 0.22 | 0.22 | 0.29 | 0.15 | 0.04 | 0.13 |
Spain | 0.42 | 0.41 | 0.45 | 0.14 | 0.25 | 0.10 |
Sweden | 0.06 | 0.20 | 0.23 | 0.20 | 0.10 | 0.28 |
Switzerland | 0.53 | 0.54 | 0.61 | 0.35 | 0.53 | 0.58 |
Turkey | 0.32 | 0.22 | 0.00 | 0.02 | 0.23 | 0.03 |
United Kingdom | 0.12 | 0.05 | 0.69 | 0.18 | 0.07 | 0.58 |
Total | 0.25 | 0.25 | 0.37 | 0.15 | 0.18 | 0.26 |
Ethnic/origin | Linguistic | Religious | |
---|---|---|---|
Austria | −0.04 | 0.09 | 0.20 |
Belgium | 0.40 | 0.03 | −0.01 |
Bulgaria | 0.38 | 0.05 | 0.24 |
Croatia | 0.21 | 0.07 | −0.10 |
Cyprus | −0.03 | 0.36 | 0.37 |
Czech Republic | 0.26 | 0.30 | 0.41 |
Denmark | −0.03 | 0.06 | 0.10 |
Estonia | 0.18 | 0.06 | −0.04 |
Finland | 0.09 | 0.02 | 0.18 |
France | −0.07 | 0.02 | 0.16 |
Germany | 0.02 | 0.09 | 0.09 |
Greece | 0.00 | −0.04 | 0.08 |
Hungary | 0.11 | 0.02 | 0.09 |
Iceland | 0.02 | 0.07 | 0.03 |
Ireland | −0.05 | −0.02 | 0.06 |
Italy | 0.07 | −0.13 | 0.27 |
Latvia | 0.34 | 0.16 | −0.14 |
Luxembourg | 0.03 | 0.14 | −0.34 |
Netherlands | −0.05 | 0.42 | 0.10 |
Norway | −0.06 | −0.02 | 0.00 |
Poland | 0.09 | 0.05 | 0.14 |
Portugal | −0.06 | 0.00 | 0.07 |
Romania | 0.30 | 0.03 | 0.02 |
Russia | 0.14 | 0.15 | 0.22 |
Slovenia | 0.07 | 0.18 | 0.16 |
Slovakia | 0.20 | 0.06 | 0.25 |
Spain | 0.28 | 0.16 | 0.35 |
Sweden | −0.14 | 0.10 | −0.05 |
Switzerland | 0.18 | 0.01 | 0.03 |
Turkey | 0.30 | −0.01 | −0.03 |
United Kingdom | −0.06 | −0.02 | 0.11 |
Total | 0.09 | 0.07 | 0.10 |
National diversity | Regional diversity | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Ethnic | Linguistic | Religious | Origin | Linguistic | |
National diversity | |||||
Ethnic | |||||
Linguistic | 0.770** | ||||
Religious | 0.177 | 0.346* | |||
Regional diversity | |||||
Origin | 0.455** | 0.628** | 0.053 | ||
Linguistic | 0.821** | 0.818** | 0.160 | 0.652** | |
Religious | 0.414* | 0.506** | 0.695** | 0.472** | 0.419* |
2.4 Regional Diversity Measures
Diversity in origin | Linguistic diversity | Religious diversity | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Mean | SD | Mean | SD | Mean | SD | |
Austria | 0.140 | 0.026 | 0.063 | 0.025 | 0.207 | 0.050 |
Belgium | 0.240 | 0.154 | 0.187 | 0.177 | 0.307 | 0.220 |
Bulgaria | 0.025 | 0.007 | 0.250 | 0.057 | 0.360 | 0.000 |
Croatia | 0.160 | 0.044 | 0.007 | 0.006 | 0.137 | 0.038 |
Cyprus | 0.130 | – | 0.040 | – | 0.030 | – |
Czech Republic | 0.060 | – | 0.020 | – | 0.250 | – |
Denmark | 0.110 | – | 0.040 | – | 0.130 | – |
Estonia | 0.320 | – | 0.430 | – | 0.540 | – |
Finland | 0.055 | 0.007 | 0.130 | 0.028 | 0.075 | 0.007 |
France | 0.148 | 0.083 | 0.101 | 0.060 | 0.214 | 0.111 |
Germany | 0.139 | 0.069 | 0.072 | 0.039 | 0.434 | 0.108 |
Greece | 0.104 | 0.062 | 0.041 | 0.037 | 0.216 | 0.196 |
Iceland | 0.060 | – | 0.010 | – | 0.160 | – |
Italy | 0.046 | 0.024 | 0.238 | 0.093 | 0.036 | 0.013 |
Latvia | 0.240 | – | 0.420 | – | 0.700 | – |
Luxembourg | 0.430 | – | 0.500 | – | 0.430 | – |
Netherlands | 0.135 | 0.049 | 0.108 | 0.116 | 0.508 | 0.181 |
Norway | 0.124 | 0.046 | 0.084 | 0.032 | 0.184 | 0.093 |
Poland | 0.033 | 0.022 | 0.005 | 0.008 | 0.032 | 0.015 |
Portugal | 0.110 | – | 0.020 | – | 0.070 | – |
Romania | 0.010 | 0.008 | 0.130 | 0.177 | 0.210 | 0.211 |
Slovakia | 0.060 | – | 0.200 | – | 0.320 | – |
Slovenia | 0.150 | – | 0.040 | – | 0.130 | – |
Spain | 0.133 | 0.053 | 0.170 | 0.169 | 0.094 | 0.044 |
Sweden | 0.180 | 0.066 | 0.093 | 0.040 | 0.260 | 0.100 |
Switzerland | 0.303 | 0.049 | 0.310 | 0.108 | 0.512 | 0.076 |
Turkey | 0.045 | 0.109 | 0.179 | 0.234 | 0.028 | 0.049 |
United Kingdom | 0.152 | 0.105 | 0.060 | 0.059 | 0.537 | 0.077 |
3 Effects of Diversity on Individual Sociality
3.1 Trust and Government Redistribution
3.2 Measures and Method
3.2.1 Dependent Variables
3.2.2 Independent Variables
3.2.3 Control Variables
3.3 Results of the Multilevel Analyses
(1) | (2a) | (2b) | (2c) | (3a) | (3b) | (3c) | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Regional level
| |||||||
Diversity in origin | −0.295 (0.377) | ||||||
Linguistic diversity | −0.169 (0.227) | ||||||
Religious diversity | 0.316 (0.233) | ||||||
Country level
| |||||||
Ethnic diversity | −1.197 (0.726) | ||||||
Linguistic diversity | −0.515 (0.692) | ||||||
Religious diversity | 0.662 (0.586) | ||||||
Control variables
| |||||||
ESS Round 1 (reference) | – | – | – | – | – | – | – |
ESS Round 2 | 0.038** (0.013) | 0.038** (0.013) | 0.038** (0.013) | 0.038** (0.013) | 0.038** (0.013) | 0.038** (0.013) | 0.038** (0.013) |
ESS Round 3 | 0.111** (0.013) | 0.111** (0.013) | 0.111** (0.013) | 0.112** (0.013) | 0.111** (0.013) | 0.111** (0.013) | 0.111** (0.013) |
ESS Round 4 | 0.129** (0.013) | 0.129** (0.013) | 0.129** (0.013) | 0.129** (0.013) | 0.129** (0.013) | 0.129** (0.013) | 0.129** (0.013) |
Gender (1 = female) | 0.071** (0.009) | 0.071** (0.009) | 0.071** (0.009) | 0.071** (0.009) | 0.071** (0.009) | 0.071** (0.009) | 0.071** (0.009) |
Age | −0.003** (0.000) | −0.003** (0.000) | −0.003** (0.000) | −0.003** (0.000) | −0.003** (0.000) | −0.003** (0.000) | −0.003** (0.000) |
Years of education | 0.054** (0.001) | 0.054** (0.001) | 0.054** (0.001) | 0.054** (0.001) | 0.054** (0.001) | 0.054** (0.001) | 0.054** (0.001) |
GDP per capita | 0.609** (0.125) | 0.625** (0.125) | 0.613** (0.123) | 0.604** (0.123) | 0.591** (0.119) | 0.630** (0.126) | 0.628** (0.122) |
Intercept | 4.826 (0.130) | 4.827 (0.129) | 4.829 (0.129) | 4.830 (0.129) | 4.847 (0.125) | 4.832 (0.129) | 4.844 (0.128) |
Variance
| |||||||
Country level | 0.465 (0.127) | 0.462 (0.126) | 0.459 (0.125) | 0.456 (0.125) | 0.425 (0.116) | 0.457 (0.125) | 0.443 (0.121) |
Regional level | 0.052 (0.009) | 0.052 (0.009) | 0.052 (0.009) | 0.051 (0.008) | 0.052 (0.009) | 0.052 (0.009) | 0.052 (0.009) |
Individual level | 3.136 (0.011) | 3.136 (0.011) | 3.136 (0.011) | 3.136 (0.011) | 3.136 (0.011) | 3.136 (0.011) | 3.136 (0.011) |
Deviancea
| 0.616 | 0.557 | 1.844 | 2.613 | 0.546 | 1.248 |
(1) | (2a) | (2b) | (2c) | (3a) | (3b) | (3c) | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Regional level
| |||||||
Diversity in origin | 0.811* (0.388) | ||||||
Linguistic diversity | 0.933** (0.224) | ||||||
Religious diversity | 0.314 (0.241) | ||||||
Country level
| −1.202* (0.592) | ||||||
Ethnic diversity | −0.531 (0.570) | ||||||
Linguistic diversity | −0.873* (0.462) | ||||||
Religious diversity | |||||||
Control variables
| |||||||
ESS Round 1 (reference) | – | – | – | – | – | – | – |
ESS Round 2 | −0.178** (0.014) | −0.178** (0.014) | −0.178** (0.014) | −0.178** (0.014) | −0.178** (0.014) | −0.178** (0.014) | −0.178** (0.014) |
ESS Round 3 | −0.092** (0.014) | −0.092** (0.014) | −0.092** (0.014) | −0.092** (0.014) | −0.092** (0.014) | −0.092** (0.014) | −0.092** (0.014) |
ESS Round 4 | −0.140** (0.014) | −0.140** (0.014) | −0.140** (0.014) | −0.140** (0.014) | −0.140** (0.014) | −0.140** (0.014) | −0.140** (0.014) |
Gender (1 = female) | −0.006 (0.009) | −0.006 (0.009) | −0.006 (0.009) | −0.006 (0.009) | −0.006 (0.009) | −0.006 (0.009) | −0.006 (0.009) |
Age | 0.000 (0.000) | 0.000 (0.000) | 0.000 (0.000) | 0.000 (0.000) | 0.000 (0.000) | 0.000 (0.000) | 0.000 (0.000) |
Years of education | 0.042** (0.001) | 0.042** (0.001) | 0.042** (0.001) | 0.042** (0.001) | 0.042** (0.001) | 0.042** (0.001) | 0.042** (0.001) |
GDP per capita | 0.520** (0.103) | 0.476** (0.109) | 0.496** (0.108) | 0.514** (0.107) | 0.500** (0.098) | 0.542** (0.104) | 0.500** (0.097) |
Intercept | 4.998 (0.107) | 4.840 (0.131) | 4.843 (0.130) | 4.843 (0.131) | 4.861 (0.126) | 4.846 (0.130) | 4.858 (0.129) |
Variance
| |||||||
Country level | 0.302 (0.086) | 0.334 (0.093) | 0.347 (0.096) | 0.333 (0.093) | 0.267 (0.077) | 0.295 (0.084) | 0.263 (0.076) |
Regional level | 0.062 (0.010) | 0.052 (0.009) | 0.052 (0.009) | 0.052 (0.009) | 0.052 (0.009) | 0.052 (0.009) | 0.052 (0.009) |
Individual level | 3.113 (0.012) | 3.113 (0.012) | 3.113 (0.012) | 3.113 (0.012) | 3.113 (0.012) | 3.113 (0.012) | 3.113 (0.012) |
Deviancea
| 3.900* | 15.800** | 1.500 | 3.800 | 0.800 | 3.300 |
(1) | (2a) | (2b) | (2c) | (3a) | (3b) | (3c) | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Regional level
| |||||||
Diversity in origin | −0.825** (0.226) | ||||||
Linguistic diversity | −0.219 (0.142) | ||||||
Religious diversity | −0.461** (0.128) | ||||||
Country level
| |||||||
Ethnic diversity | 0.002 (0.237) | ||||||
Linguistic diversity | −0.163 (0.215) | ||||||
Religious diversity | −0.372* (0.163) | ||||||
Control variables
| |||||||
ESS Round 1 (reference) | – | – | – | – | – | – | – |
ESS Round 2 | 0.044** (0.007) | 0.044** (0.007) | 0.044** (0.007) | 0.044** (0.007) | 0.044** (0.007) | 0.044** (0.007) | 0.044** (0.007) |
ESS Round 3 | 0.082** (0.007) | 0.082** (0.007) | 0.082** (0.007) | 0.082** (0.007) | 0.082** (0.007) | 0.082** (0.007) | 0.082** (0.007) |
ESS Round 4 | 0.040** (0.007) | 0.041** (0.007) | 0.041** (0.007) | 0.041** (0.007) | 0.040** (0.007) | 0.041** (0.007) | 0.040** (0.007) |
Gender (1 = female) | 0.130** (0.005) | 0.130** (0.005) | 0.130** (0.005) | 0.130** (0.005) | 0.130** (0.005) | 0.130** (0.005) | 0.130** (0.005) |
Age | −0.002** (0.000) | −0.002** (0.000) | −0.002** (0.000) | −0.002** (0.000) | −0.002** (0.000) | −0.002** (0.000) | −0.002** (0.000) |
Years of education | −0.028** (0.001) | −0.028** (0.001) | −0.028** (0.001) | −0.028** (0.001) | −0.028** (0.001) | −0.028** (0.001) | −0.028** (0.001) |
GDP per capita | −0.149** (0.039) | −0.103** (0.039) | −0.144** (0.040) | −0.138** (0.037) | −0.149** (0.040) | −0.143** (0.040) | −0.153** (0.036) |
Intercept | 3.633 (0.040) | 3.634 (0.042) | 3.627 (0.041) | 3.628 (0.038) | 3.633 (0.041) | 3.634 (0.040) | 3.626 (0.037) |
Variance
| |||||||
Country level | 0.034 (0.012) | 0.040 (0.013) | 0.037 (0.012) | 0.029 (0.010) | 0.034 (0.012) | 0.033 (0.011) | 0.027 (0.010) |
Regional level | 0.026 (0.004) | 0.022 (0.003) | 0.025 (0.004) | 0.024 (0.004) | 0.026 (0.004) | 0.026 (0.004) | 0.026 (0.004) |
Individual level | 0.948 (0.003) | 0.948 (0.003) | 0.948 (0.003) | 0.948 (0.003) | 0.948 (0.003) | 0.948 (0.003) | 0.948 (0.003) |
Deviancea
| 11.993** | 2.297 | 12.187** | 0.000 | 0.568 | 4.964* |