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2018 | OriginalPaper | Chapter

15. Sustainability Aspects of Biokerosene

Authors : Benedikt Buchspies, Martin Kaltschmitt

Published in: Biokerosene

Publisher: Springer Berlin Heidelberg

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Abstract

The introduction of biokerosene as an alternative to conventional fossil kerosene is driven by the intention to reduce greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, to reduce dependency on fossil energy carriers and by the potential to create economic benefits especially in rural areas. In this paper, sustainability aspects of biokerosene are discussed for a wide range of feedstocks and conversion pathways with regards to environmental and socio-economic consequences.

From an environmental perspective, results show that the use of biokerosene can reduce GHG emissions compared to the use of conventional jet fuel. However, this is strongly dependent on direct and indirect land-use change effects, which could even lead to a considerable increase in emissions. Emission benefits might be alleviated to some extent by non-CO₂ emissions from combustion. The cultivation of feedstock affects soil and water quality by soil carbon loss, soil erosion and leaching of nutrients and agrochemicals etc. Appropriate management practices can reduce negative consequences. Impacts are furthermore dependent on land-use history and crop type: certain crops, for example, can improve soil quality. The assessment of land requirements shows that algae, switchgrass, miscanthus, sugarcane and oil palm yield the highest quantity of fuels per hectare. Scientific literature reports predominantly negative impacts of biofuels on biodiversity. These negative consequences can be alleviated by the use of wastes and lignocellulosic residues.

Regarding socio-economic aspects, the assessment shows that none of the assessed fuel pathways is financially competitive with conventional kerosene, even assuming a mature provision technology. The provision of valuable co-products or the taxation of fossil fuels present ways to facilitate the introduction of biokerosene. Furthermore, the effect of biofuels on food prices and volatility of food prices is discussed. Most scientific literature reports increasing food prices due to existing biofuel policy. However, embedded in a flexible regulative context, biofuels could reduce price volatility. The analysis furthermore reveals that biofuels trigger investment and create employment and income in rural areas.

Most environmental and socio-economic consequences are dependent on the feedstock, conversion pathway, local environmental, socio-economic conditions, market structures and the political context. The overview of several key aspects of sustainability provided in this study underlines the importance of an individual sustainability assessment in order to optimize benefits and minimize negative consequences of biokerosene provision and use. It becomes furthermore evident that many negative impacts are inherent to agricultural production in general and that these aspects need to be discussed in a wider context than that of biofuels alone. Doing so could promote synergies of food, fiber and fuel production and facilitate a sustainable use of resources.

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previous chapter Algae as a Potential Source of Biokerosene and Diesel – Opportunities and Challenges

next chapter Direct and Indirect Land Use Change

Table 15.2 presents a selection of impacts to give some insights into possible impacts on sustainability rather than giving a complete picture of environmental impacts.

See note 1.

SPK50 and SPK100 denote a mixture of conventional Jet-A fuel and SPK biokerosene of 50/50 and 0/100

(vol.-%/vol.-%), respectively.

The equivalent carbon number (ECN) is the difference between the total carbon number (CN) and twice the number of double bonds (DB): ECN = CN – 2DB.

Prices for agricultural co-products and feed products are based on prices from August 2011 to July 2016 [105, 106], except for the following products: jatropha oil and seedcake [107], algae oil [108] and meal [109], as well as AtJ from corn and sugarcane [102]. In these cases, allocation is based on prices referred to in the respective study or based on reported monetary allocation factors.

Water footprints (WF) were obtained from the following sources: jatropha [107, 110], oil palm [111, 112], soybean [65, 104], rapeseed [104], algae [113, 114], sugarcane [65], maize [115], switchgrass [102], poplar [116] and miscanthus [117].

The assessment does not consider non-CO₂ emissions from combustion and entailed effects, such as particle emissions, cloud formation, etc. These effects are considered separately below.

The analysed studies apply different approaches to account for co-products: Stratton et al. [57] use market value-based allocation at the oil mill stage and energy-based allocation at the fuel production stage and for energetic co-products, i.e. electricity; Egowainy et al. [125] assign credits for co-products other than fuels and apply energy-based allocation at the fuel processing stage; Meyer et al. [121] allocate emissions based on energy content and give credits for surplus heat; Bails et al. [120] apply energy-based allocation; Ou et al. [122] assign credits for co-products other than fuel, i.e. fertilizer, heat and electricity, and apply energy-based allocation for fuels; Staples et al. [124] allocate emissions based on market value.

PM₁₀ denotes particulate matter with a maximum diameter of 10 µm.

Yields of switchgrass stem from Belgium, England, France, Germany, Japan and USA from 1983 to 2011; miscanthus yields are reported from Belgium, England, France, Germany, Italy, Poland, USA, Wales from 1992 to 2011 [160].

n^th plant assumptions imply mature technology (no pioneer plant) and assumes that other plants with similar specifications are or have been in operation on a commercial scale [179].

SD = 18 %/(EJ a), n = 218.

SD = 25 %/(EJ a), n = 25, one outliner removed.

The 95 % confidence intervals for cereals and fats and oils are −0.66 to −0.56, −0.61 to −0.41, 0.48 to 0.36 and −0.65 to −0.45, −0.60 to −0.47, −0.48 to −0.35 %, in case of low, middle and high income countries, respectively.

See note 13.

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Title: Sustainability Aspects of Biokerosene
Authors: Benedikt Buchspies
Martin Kaltschmitt
Publisher: Springer Berlin Heidelberg
Book: Biokerosene
Print ISBN: 978-3-662-53063-4

Electronic ISBN: 978-3-662-53065-8

Copyright Year: 2018
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-662-53065-8_15