Sustainability Trends and Challenges in Civil Engineering

Table of Contents

1. Frontmatter

2. Stability Analysis of Embankments on Soft Consolidating Layered Foundation Soil

   P. Radhika Bhandary, A. Krishnamoorthy, Asha U. Rao

   Abstract

   Embankments are being constructed for highways, railways and abutments. Sometimes the foundation soil encountered is soft consolidating soil and can cause settlements due to embankment construction. The method of combining the method of finite elements and the genetic algorithm to evaluate the safety factor of the embankment built on a soft consolidating layered soil is discussed in this paper. The foundation soil has two layers with soil properties weaker than the embankment soil. Two numerical examples are considered for the analysis. In the finite element system, the soil is modeled using the Mohr–Coulomb nonlinear model and the least safety factor is calculated at different time intervals after construction until the consolidation process is completed using the genetic algorithm. The safety factor variant from the study helps to know when the embankment is suitable and safe to use.

3. Curvature Ductility of Reinforced Masonry Walls and Reinforced Concrete Walls

   Jacob Alex Kollerathu

   Abstract

   Research conducted in this work proposes an equation to evaluate and compares the curvature ductility of reinforced masonry (RM) and reinforced concrete (RC) walls. The curvature ductilities are measured at varying levels of axial stresses for walls for aspect ratio (l/h) of 0.5, 1.0 and 1.5. The percentage of reinforcement is increased from 0.25% (minimum reinforcement for RC walls as per IS-13920) to 1.00%. The curvature ductilities are evaluated by plotting flexural strength (M) versus curvature (ф) for the walls. The stress–strain curves of masonry, concrete and reinforcing steel are all adopted from existing literature. The compressive strength of masonry and concrete has been chosen as 10 MPa and 25 MPa, respectively. The yield strength of the steel is fixed as 415 MPa. The height and thickness of the wall are 3000 and 230 mm, respectively, and the length of the wall is varied to obtain different aspect ratios. Results obtained from this paper imply due to increase curvature ductility, RM walls provide a better alternative for the construction of structural walls compared to RC walls in regions of significant seismicity.

4. Application of Image Analysis in Infrastructure Sector Fields—An Overview

   G. Sreelakshmi, M. N. Asha

   Abstract

   Image analysis is one of the recent tools used in the different fields of engineering towards understanding the microscopic behaviour of materials. It extracts information from an image by using automatic or semiautomatic techniques and the result of the image analysis process is a numerical output rather than a picture. Full scale or prototype modelling experimental studies in various Civil Engineering fields involves high-level instrumentation like strain gauges, load cells, data analyzer and data acquisition system. Many researchers in Civil Engineering field have used image analysis along with prototype modelling wherein interface behavioural mechanisms are studied. This avoids complicated experimentation process and permits assessment of discrete behaviours of particles that is impossible otherwise. The current review throws light on various digital image correlation and image processing techniques applied widely in mapping deformation behaviour in different streams of Civil Engineering. It is observed that these techniques offer a greater understanding of crack formation and progression, tracking of subsurface soil movement, monitoring of rail track displacement and visualization of flow in hydraulic channels.

5. Microalgae and Sewage Treatment for Developing Countries

   Nandini Moondra, R. A. Christian, N. D. Jariwala

   Abstract

   Wastewater composition can be directly related with lifestyles of the society. Current wastewater effluent has a high nitrogen and phosphorus concentration, which adversely effects ecosystems. Sewage treatment units practiced in undeveloped countries have various limitations. The present study focused on treatment of sewage collected from a sewage treatment plant (STP) of a smart city of a developing nation using microalgae. The study found that the microalgae were efficient in removing nutrients and organic matter. Maximum reduction observed in phosphate, ammonia, and COD was 97.46, 100, and 93.67% at 11 h of detention time. Phycoremediation proved to be an effective method for sewage treatment.

6. A Review on the Development of Outriggers and Introduction to Hybrid Outrigger System on Tall Buildings

   Neethu Elizabeth John, Kiran Kamath

   Abstract

   The concept of outriggers as a lateral load resisting system in high-rise structures has been used since decades. The relevance of outriggers gains prominence due to its efficiency in restraining the rotations in core wall which in turn reduces its bending moment and lateral deflection of the structure. Studies related to the behaviour of outriggers on tall buildings have been undertaken by various researchers, and condensing the concept, mechanism and its behaviour is vital in providing a proper guidance to researchers. Even though researchers have worked on buildings with outriggers, literatures mentioning the analysis of both conventional and virtual outriggers in the same building which acts like a hybrid outrigger system were underexplored. Therefore, this article discusses a review on the background of outriggers, classification of outriggers, parameters influencing the outrigger behaviour and introduces the concept of hybrid outrigger system in high-rise RCC structures. The efficacy of conventional, virtual and hybrid outrigger system is compared by modelling a 30-storey RCC building in a finite element software, ETABS, for both static and dynamic loads. The results from the comparative study showed that hybrid outrigger system may be used as an efficient lateral load resisting system.

7. Efficiency of Carica papaya Stem Activated with Phosphoric Acid and Sodium Hydroxide in Mining Wastewater Treatment

   Ezekiel A. Adetoro, Samson O. Ojoawo

   Abstract

   Chemically activated carbons prepared from the Carica papaya stem using phosphoric acid (CPSAC–H₃PO₄) and sodium hydroxide (CPSAC–NaOH) were used in sequestrating selected toxic metals (Cu²⁺, Mn²⁺, Co³⁺, Fe²⁺, Zn²⁺, Cd²⁺, Pb²⁺ and Cr³⁺) from mining wastewater. The mining wastewater was characterized for selected toxic metals using atomic absorption spectrophotometer (AAS). Batch adsorption studies were conducted using the CPSACs to remove selected toxic metals from the mining wastewater putting into consideration adsorbent dosage, agitation rate, contact time, pH and temperature parameters. The data obtained were fitted into isotherm (Freundlich, Langmuir, Dubinin–Radushkevich and Temkin) and kinetic (pseudo-first and pseudo-second orders, Elovich and intra-particle diffusion) and thermodynamic (standard enthalpy change, ΔH°; standard entropy change, ΔS°; and standard free energy change, ΔG°) models for its suitability. Three different error functions (sum of absolute errors—EABS, average relative errors—AREs and coefficient of determination—R²) were used for assessment of the linear and non-linear regression analyses of the selected adsorption isotherms and kinetic models. The removal efficiency of the selected toxic metals in CPSAC samples was between 92.97 and 100.00%. The adsorbent dosage, agitation rate, contact time, pH and temperature for optimum condition were 0.6 g (CPSAC–H₃PO₄) and 0.2 g (CPSAC–NaOH), 150 rpm, 60 min., 7 and 30 °C, respectively. Adsorption data followed the isotherms in the order of CPSAC–NaOH > CPSAC–H₃PO₄ and kinetics (i.e. pseudo-second order and intra-particle diffusion mechanism) in the order of CPSAC–H3PO4 > CPSAC–NaOH. Non-linear regression analyses using EAB, ARE and R² error functions indicated to be better in analysing adsorption and kinetic models for the studied toxic metals. The ΔH°, ΔS° and ΔG° for the processes were 657.916, 64.288 and 22,012 kJ/mol, respectively. The adsorbents were efficient for removal of the selected toxic metals from the mining wastewater (though CPSAC–H₃PO₄ was most efficient); thus, it can be used for industrial application in wastewater treatment.

8. Response Surface Models for Optimal Concrete Designs

   C. Chandre Gowda, B. C. Kumar Raju, B. E. Bhojaraj

   Abstract

   The merits of response surface models in concrete construction need to be explored. These models have shown enormous use in the field of manufacturing and production. So in the present study, the application of response surface for concrete production is described. Their benefit in determining the results with minimum number of experiments is also discussed. The review summarizes the application of response surface models and shows that the statistical models provide additional support in analyzing the constrained targets. It reduces the test cases making the designs more economical compared to conventional methods.

9. Thermal Comfort Studies of Residential Building Models in Vijayawada

   Jagadish Vengala, Srinivas Chava, Premkumar Pydipati

   Abstract

   Brick masonry wall is the more common walling system being used in residential buildings. As the demand for housing is increasing, new construction materials are coming up in the market and being utilized in the construction. Solid concrete blocks (SCB) and autoclave aerated concrete (AAC) blocks are the two materials which are most commonly used in most of the construction sites apart from the clay bricks (CB). The thermal behaviour of the buildings with these materials needs to be studied. It is also necessary to reduce the heat inside the building to improve the human comfort. Effect of coating material over roof also needs to be studied. Living comfort inside any building mainly depends on the “thermal comfort”. Thermal comfort mainly involves the interior conditions of the rooms, i.e. mainly temperature and humidity, maintaining and distributing it evenly, and the quality of air (purity, humidity rate, healthiness). By providing a thermal insulation to all the surfaces combined with seasonal adoption of ventilation, thermal comfort can be achieved in different climate conditions. By keeping these points in a view, a thorough study was conducted to know the thermal variations in various house models by varying the wall type. Results indicated the superior thermal performance of the model with AAC block in comparison with the models made with solid concrete block and clay brick.

10. Investigations on Compression Behaviour of Short Reinforced NSC Columns

    J. Sanjith, R. Prabhakara, M. S. Sudarshan, Jayachandra

    Abstract

    The analysis is carried out for studying subsequent parameters to know structural performance of NSC columns and aim is to predict the values of deformation, yielding load and ultimate load of short reinforced Normal Strength Concrete of three different grades M20, M30 and M40 subjected to axially compressive load in loading frame. ANN tool was trained with proper inputs like fresh properties of materials, spacing of stirrups and percentage of longitudinal reinforcement and keeping target values obtained from experiment and results are compared with the ANN values accompanied by marginal errors which are around 0.5%.

11. Seismic Analysis of Multi-storey Building on Sloping Ground with Ground, Middle and Top Soft Storey

    Ratnakala S. Bidreddy, Shankar H. Sanni

    Abstract

    Nowadays, fast development is occurring in uneven zones because of lack of plain ground. As a result, the bumpy territories have checked impact on the structures in terms of style, material and technique of construction leading to popularity of multi-storied structures in hilly regions. Because of inclining profile, the different degrees of such structures step back towards the slope slant and may likewise have set back also at the simultaneity. In the present study, G+12 storey building is considered, and this building is assumed to be present in flat ground and on sloping ground 20°. The models are also equipped with infill walls and two different shear wall arrangements. The models are also a soft storey structure. By this, total ten models are created for analysis purpose. Here, equivalent static analysis is carried out for the study.

12. Investigations on Compression Behaviour of Short Reinforced SCC Columns

    J. Sanjith, R. Prabhakara, M. S. Sudarshan, H. K. Thejas

    Abstract

    The objective of this work is to predict the values of deformation and load at cracking point, yielding point and ultimate point of short reinforced self-Compacting Concrete columns which was subjected to axially compression in loading frame. An ANN tool by giving proper inputs like fresh properties of materials, spacing of stirrups and percentage of longitudinal reinforcement and keeping target values obtained from experiments, it is compared with the experimental values accompanied by marginal errors.

13. Performance Evaluation of Bituminous Pavement with High Recycled Asphalt Pavement Material content—A Case Study

    P. B. Gnanamurthy, B. V. Kiran Kumar

    Abstract

    In India to meet the requirement of growing travel demand and to help rapid growth of economic activity, infrastructure development is taken up by central and state governments on large scale. Majority of the road network in India has flexible pavement constructed using quarry aggregates and bitumen. Because of this process, there has been faster depletion of road aggregates and also an increase in emission of carbon gases causing environmental pollution. The use of eco-friendly bitumen, reuse of aggregates obtained from milling, and material reclaimed from old pavement to construct or rehabilitate roads will be the most promising alternative to the current practice toward achieving sustainability in road construction. In this regard, present study aims at formulating design methodology through extensive field and laboratory studies for the construction of surface course containing high recycled asphalt pavement content material and waste plastic. A test track of 25 mm thick close graded premix carpet (CGPC) containing virgin aggregates by 20%, recycle asphalt pavement aggregates (RAP) 80%, and waste plastic 8% by weight of bitumen was laid and subjected to performance evaluation under existing road and traffic condition. Based on the laboratory and field test results, it was found that bituminous mix containing high recycled asphalt pavement material content (80% recycled aggregates) with 8% of waste plastic by weight of bitumen as recycling agent performs better and found economical than the stretch with conventional hot mix asphalt (HMA) mix. Performance evaluation was carried out in two cycles one before the monsoon in May and the second post-monsoon season in December. From the evaluation study, it was found that there was no considerable surface distress found on the test track both during cycle-1 and cycle-2. Roughness test results imply that bituminous pavement surface with RAP and waste plastic provides comparatively better riding quality and comfort than the conventional bituminous mix. Based on the findings of the study, it may be inferred that it is attainable to delineate acceptable quality bituminous mix with high RAP content that meets needed properties and performance criteria as per standards and specifications. From the present study, it is also clear that recycling technology is an effective and economical alternative for the construction of low or medium-traffic intensity roads in India which constitute the major portion of the Indian road network.

14. Life Cycle Costing on a Building, An Approach to Make Building Energy Efficient

    Shashwath M. Nanjannavar, Samreen Hullur, Darshan Baddi, Shadab Mulla, A. G. Ramyashree

    Abstract

    The research paper presents implementation of life cycle costing (L.C.C.) approach to a building on five parameters which makes the existing hostel building energy efficient and sustainable. According to GRIHA (Green Rating for Integrated Habitat Assessment) manual, five criteria (parameters) are chosen viz. solar panels, low VOC paints, double-glazed windows, fly ash bricks and LED bulbs. To choose the best alternative, each parameter is analyzed using L.C.C with present worth method as per IS: 13174 part 1 and 2. The L.C.C results show that implementation of the energy efficient parameters, makes the building closer in gaining one-star rating according to GRIHA evaluation system, so if the chosen five parameters are implemented in the existing building then the building’s green rating points will be increased from 11 to 46. Using Revit software (insight 360), conventional building and energy efficient building models are developed to generate energy consumption per annum. The analysis report obtained from the Insight 360 software shows lower peaks in energy demand suggesting that building with the selected parameters is more efficient in terms of cost and energy which helps the building to gain one-star rating according to GRIHA.

15. An Experimental Study on Usage of Treated Waste Water (Domestic) on the Fresh and Hardened Properties of Conventional Vibrated Concrete for Sustainable Construction

    N. M. Rakshit Jain, N. Ajay, P. U. Vinyas Gowda

    Abstract

    Concrete is the most greatly employed unnatural heterogenous mixture in the world. Also, concrete is one among the industries that expends huge amount of water. Approximately, 130–150 liters of water is prerequisite per cu-m of concrete mixture, beyond the considerations of other exercises of water in the construction industry. Water is a pivotal environmental concern; and supply and quality of water are becoming more bounded worldwide. Thus, there is a demand to conserve the water and on the other side, there are million liters of wastewater produced and wasted every day from various sources. The usage of treated waste water in production of concrete is very important for the present scenario. Taking this into consideration, an experimental study was carried out to assess the fresh and strength properties of conventional vibrated concrete (CVC) by using domestic treated wastewater. In the present work, the concrete mixes were produced with water-to-cement ratio about 0.45 along with different proportions of treated waste water which ranges between 25 to 100% of potable water and the specimens were casted. For each concrete mixtures, the fresh properties and strength properties were assessed as per IS codal provisions. In addition to these, three of the each specimens were cured separately in potable water and treated wastewater to assess the influence of treated wastewater as curing water. Results signify that the concrete mixtures produced with treated wastewater showed similar strength properties with concrete produced from potable water. Treated wastewater, while employed as curing water made very less impact on the strength parameters of concrete.

16. Parametric Study of Shear Behavior of Compacted Kaolinite-Bentonite–Sand Mix Proportions

    D. N. Jyothi, H. S. Prasanna, C. V. Amrutha Lakshmi, D. K. Nageshwar

    Abstract

    Fine-grained soils mainly consist of kaolinite, montmorillonite, and illite clay minerals in varying proportions along with sand and silts. The studies related to the shear behavior of such soils are being limited to the geographic locations and is having limited applications rather than the generic one. To have a thorough understanding of the general trend in variation of shear behavior of fine-grained soils having different clay mineralogical compositions around the world is tedious and time-consuming. The behavior of kaolinitic soils predominantly controlled by flocculant fabric whereas the behavior of montmorillonite soils is governed by dispersive fabric effects which also makes the study more complex. In the present experimental study, an attempt has been made, to investigate the behavior of natural fine-grained soils through a mixture of kaolinite-bentonite–sand in varying proportions. Physical properties and compaction characteristics such as MDD and OMC for Indian standard Light compaction for the mix proportions investigated were determined according to BIS specifications. The kaolinite-bentonite–sand mixture compacted at MDD and OMC was subjected to various load applied using the Box shear test and shear failure behavior was critically analyzed. Compaction characteristics of the mix proportions can be effectively correlated. The percent fines of the mix proportions have a significant bearing on the magnitude of cohesion and angle of internal friction. Useful regression models were also developed correlating shear strength behavior of the mix proportions with percent fines and sand which exhibits behavior akin to natural fine-grained soils when subjected to compactive energy.

17. A Study on Volumetric Shrinkage of Compacted Fine-Grained Soils Subjected to Various Energy Levels

    H. S. Prasanna, C. Thrupthi, B. Varshini

    Abstract

    Plasticity characteristics of the soils (fine-grained) assume greater importance in view of engineering behaviour. It mainly depends on the clay mineralogical composition, predominantly controlled by physico-chemical phenomenon. This is due to the fact that the contradictory behaviour of the presence of the least active clay mineral kaolinite to most active montmorillonite in addition to Illite and other clay minerals, in different proportion. The contradictory behaviour of kaolinite and montmorillonite makes the study more complex. Shrinkage limit, among the Atterberg limits (plasticity characteristic) of the soils (fine-grained), associates with degree of packing, while the liquid and plastic limits classify the soils more qualitatively. The shrinkage and expansion of fine-grained soils lead to distress of foundation. The study related to volumetric behaviour of montmorillonite soils assumes a greater practical significance. Role of compaction energy on shrinkage behaviour of soils with particular reference to soil fabric also plays a vital role in the design of earthen-related structures. The potential shrinkage of soil is quantitatively described by the newly proposed method for testing expansive clayey soils, known as the ring shrinkage test. The measurements of lateral, vertical and linear shrinkages are provided by the test. Volumetric shrinkage and shrinkage limit along with compaction energy are determined alternatively by this method. The present experimental study mainly focuses on the effects of placement conditions, role of clay minerology and compaction effort on the shrinkage (linear, lateral and volumetric) behaviour of compacted fine-grained soils using ring shrinkage test. Correlations were developed between characteristics of compaction, i.e. optimum moisture content (OMC), maximum dry density (MDD), volumetric (VS) and lateral shrinkage (LS) with compaction energy (CE).

18. A Study on Secondary Compression of Compacted Fine-Grained Soils

    H. S. Prasanna, B. V. Rachana, R. Anusha, Ganesh Basavaraj Badaradinni

    Abstract

    A manifestation of the effects of structural mechanics is the relationship linking the structure of soil and mechanical behavior. Compaction is a mechanical process modification of soil structure by the expulsion of pore air from the voids, whereas consolidation is a process of expulsion of pore water pressure in which settlement takes place. Secondary compression generally happens after the end of primary consolidation may demonstrate a steady decrease or increase over a substantial period. In order to calculate long-term foundation deformation, understanding the impact of secondary compression is fundamental. Foundation failures can happen by either shear failure or settlement failure, whereas shear failure is instantaneous and settlement failure occurs over a while. Depending on the magnitude and demographic location of the structure, the permissible settlement of the structure should not settle more than 25 and 40 mm allowable as per IS guideline to minimize distress to the foundation. The present experimental study is made on five field soils, and two soils having a liquid limit of 55% and another three soils of 68% of a liquid limit have been also considered. These soils were subjected to IS light and heavy compaction energy levels and static compaction to attend the desired compaction characteristics and achieve the required OMC and MDD; additionally, soils were subjected to a one-dimensional consolidation test from a seating load of 6.25–1600 kPa through a load increment ratio of 1 for different placement conditions. The variation of void ratio with pressure for the soil having a different clay mineralogy for different placement conditions was analyzed. Correlations were developed between pressure and the magnitude of secondary compression, for soils having different clay mineralogy.