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The article delves into the significant environmental challenges posed by the Erdenet copper-molybdenum mine in Mongolia, including soil erosion and contamination. It highlights the critical role of sustainable mining practices in achieving the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). The study presents a comprehensive rehabilitation plan, focusing on mitigating soil erosion and contamination, and aligning these efforts with SDGs 6, 12, and 15. The plan emphasizes the importance of integrating environmental management with socio-economic considerations, involving local communities, and promoting sustainable land use. The research underscores the need for ongoing monitoring, adaptive management, and collaboration among stakeholders to ensure the long-term success of the rehabilitation efforts.
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Abstract
Mining operations in Mongolia have contributed significantly to national economic growth. However, the lack of adequate mine land rehabilitation practices has resulted in various forms of land degradation, including land cover change, soil erosion and contamination with heavy metals and metalloids. These issues have negatively affected ecosystems and posed potential risks to human health due to the interconnected relationships between land, water and human activities. This study focuses on the copper-molybdenum mining site of Erdenet, the oldest and one of the largest copper mines in Mongolia, to investigate the main drivers of soil degradation and evaluate effective rehabilitation strategies. By combining findings from our previous studies on soil erosion and contamination in the Erdenet area with a review of existing research, we assess key rehabilitation priorities. Taking a Nexus approach, this study explores the interconnections between environmental, economic and social sectors, emphasizing the importance of balancing mining activities with sustainable land management. The previous studies suggest that for the next 10–15 years, priorities should focus on tailings storage facility rehabilitation and soil contamination remediation, while longer-term goals include developing sustainable environmental management strategies that foster cooperation between mining corporations and local communities, enforce regulations and improve monitoring in the Erdenet mining area. The study aligns these priorities with the Sustainable Development Goals, offering science-based recommendations for managing soil erosion and reducing contamination.
1 Introduction
The mining sector in Mongolia is one of the most important drivers of the country’s economy, accounting for 25% of the Gross Domestic Product (GDP), 87% of exports, 72% of industrial production and 75% of foreign direct investment (Krusekopf 2023). However, numerous studies indicate that mining remains one of the major contributors to environmental degradation, including soil erosion, contamination with heavy metals and metalloids and loss of vegetation cover, particularly in areas where rehabilitation practices are insufficient or improperly implemented (Batkhishig 2013; Chonokhuu et al. 2019; Liang et al. 2021; Sodnomdarjaa et al. 2023a, b and 2024). Sustainable management of mining operations aimed at mitigating and reversing these environmental impacts is crucial for the sustainable development of the mining sector in Mongolia (Mongolia 2019). Stockpiles, sludges, gullies and tailings storage facilities, which are by products of mining activities, can severely degrade soil quality by altering both its physical and chemical properties. These materials are often the result of the extraction and processing minerals, leading to changes that compromise soil stability, cause erosion, subsidence and loss of soil structure which in turn negatively affects soil biodiversity and ecosystem functions (Worlanyo and Jiangfeng 2021). During dry seasons, dust emissions from tailings storage facilities (TSF) and topsoil particles can easily disperse into the surrounding areas, leading to soil redistribution and air pollution, posingrisks to human health and contaminating air, soil and water resources (Sun et al. 2018). Given Mongolia´s uniques environmental conditions, including its position in a transitional zone between the Siberian forests and the Central Asian desert, soil management in dryland mining areas is particularly challenging. The need for sustainable mining operations align with several of the United Nations´ Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), particularly SDG 6 (clean water and sanitation), SDG 12 (responsible consumption and production) and SDG 15 (life on land). Acitve engagement from both the public and private sectors is necessary to achieve these goals (Yakovleva et al. 2017). Tailings can be considered as a resource in at least three ways: for reprocessing valuable metals or minerals; as a filler for mined-out areas or as a raw material for construction. However, these methods incur additional costs (Sun et al. 2018). A common practice is to create vegetation cover on tailings using endemic species, aligning with environmental laws that focus on preserving local biodiversity. Natural vegetation succession in these areas, however, typically requires a minimum of 50–100 years (Daily 1995). Elevated trace metal concentrations in polluted mining sites can limit plant growth, but some studies have demonstrated the potential for endophytic bacteria such as Pseudomonas koreensis AGB-1, can enhance plant growth and heavy metal extraction from soils (Babu et al. 2015; Chu et al. 2018) and that adding coal spoil amendments can help reduce metal uptake by less tolerant plants in copper mine tailings (Bandyopadhyay 2021). Grass are effective for phytomanagement due to their high biomass productivity and resilience (Elekes 2014). The objectives of environmental rehabilitation in mining sites should prioritize sustainability, local environmental conditions, the needs of nearby populations and cost-effectiveness (Worlanyo and Jiangfeng 2021). Selecting a minimum of 4–5 local plant varieties for replanting mitigates the risk of failure in mine rehabilitation, especially in arid regions experiencing increased aridity due to climate change (Xu et al. 2023). Recent resource management approaches from tailings offer potential solutions for mineral and waste processing, but gaps in technology transfer from academia to practice and recovery efficiency remain (Araujo et al. 2022). Recent studies have assessed the state of the environment at mining sites across Mongolia, establishing a significant link between mining operations and overall environmental degradation (Lehmkuhl and Batkhishig 2003; Knippertz 2005; Kosheleva et al. 2010; Timofeev et al. 2016; Karthe et al. 2017; Jarsjö et al. 2017; Batbayar et al. 2017; Chonokhuu et al. 2019; Pecina et al. 2023; Sodnomdarjaa et al. 2023a, b). However, the rehabilitation of mining sites and waste management has not received sufficient attention in Mongolia (Frauenstein et al. 2021).
This study examines impacts and rehabilitation potential of the Erdenet copper-molybdenum mine, a significant contributor to Mongolia’s economy since 1978. It provided a 3.9% GDP surplus in 2006 (ADB 2007) and remains vital for regional employment. Geological exploration from 2017 to 2021 has extended its operational lifespan by 30 years. On the negative side, Erdenet city faces severe environmental issues, including river pollution from tailing, impacted water infiltration from ore storage and exacerbated issues due to intensive mining and a growing population of around 102,000 residents (NSO 2022). Environmental problems include significant air, water, soil pollution and land degradation (e.g. Batbayar et al. 2017; Pfeiffer et al. 2015; Munkhsuld et al. 2024; Sodnomdarjaa et al. 2023a, b and 2024). Waste from ore processing is pumped to a tailings storage facility, a notable source of airborne particulate matter, commonly known as “white dust”, leading to environmental and health issues and contamination of groundwater near the facility (Lkhagvajargal et al. 2018). Higher concentrations of copper and molybdenum were detected in soils, with notable pollution in stream sediments. Elevated levels of sulfate, calcium, magnesium and arsenic were found in the Khangal River, with a lesser impact on groundwater quality (Battogtokh et al. 2014; Karthe et al. 2017). Approximately 10 km downstream, molybdenum concentrations exceed WHO health-based guidelines during summer (Solongo et al. 2021). Moreover, soil loss near the tailing storage facility and the mining areas are heightened primarily due to rainfall intensity and mining activities (Sodnomdarjaa et al. 2023a, b). Addressing these issues, particularly rehabilitating the tailing storage facility (TSF), is crucial for the mine´s sustainable future (Schwarz et al. 2016). The current TSF operates at around 60% capacity, necessiting the construction of new TSF with a focused on efficient post-closure monitoring, minimizing costs, managing ongoing liabilities and enhancing environmental sustainability in the next decade (Dagva et al. 2016). In addition, promoting modern technologies for developing construction materials from the TSF is crucial (Jargalsaikhan et al. 2023).
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This research paper proposes a comprehensive rehabilitation plan focusing on mitigating soil erosion and contamination at the Erdenet copper-molybdenum mine, aligning with SDGs 6, 12 and 15. The plan emphasizes previous studies on soil contamination and erosion, addressing a gap in integrated approaches linking environmental challenges to broader sustainable development goals. The objectives are to: (1) compile and build upon existing knowledge on soil contamination, erosion and rehabilitation in the Erdenet mining area; (2) to prepare a spatial map delineating areas with elevated soil loss and contamination levels based on previous studies and own study findings from 2020 to 2023; and (3) recommend a rehabilitation plan using the findings from previous research and relevant laws and regulations.
2 Contextual overview
2.1 Current status of SDGs in Mongolia
Mongolia has actively pursued the achievement of the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), making significant steps since the inception of the Sustainable Development Vision 2030 (SDV 2030) approved by the Mongolian government in 2016. The government further strengthened its commitment to sustainable development by approving Vision 2050, a comprehensive policy framework that includes the five-year development guidelines for 2021–2025. In addition, the Government action programme for 2020–2023, along with its implementation plan, was approved, serving as a new long-term strategic policy document. This replaces the SDV 2030 and its implementation plan, aligning with the revised law enacted in May 2020 on the country’s development policy, planning and management. These national strategies, summarized in Vision 2050 and related development guidelines, collectively address approximately 80% of the SDGs, reflecting Mongolia's commitment to integrated sustainable development. However, despite commendable progress, the country faces challenges related to SDG indicators. These challenges include data gaps, the lack of government-approved indicators, baselines and insufficient alignment of SDG indicators to the Mongolian context. A critical issue relates to the coordination and responsibilities of relevant institutions for the development and reporting of national indicators. In 2021, the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) highlighted the need to strengthen coordination and establish clear responsibilities of stakeholders. This step is essential to overcome the challenges related to data quality, availability and alignment and to ensure a more robust and accurate monitoring and evaluation framework for Mongolia's sustainable development efforts. As Mongolia align its commitment to the SDGs, its focus must extend beyond policy adoption to effective implementation and monitoring. Strengthening institutional coordination and addressing data-related challenges are essential steps to ensure that national strategies are effortlessly aligned with the global goals of the SDGs, namely sustainable development across economic, social and environmental dimensions.
2.2 Erdenet mining company and the SDGs
This section examines the Erdenet mining company´s alignment with key UN SDGs and its impact on both the environmental and community. The data used for this analysis was provided by the company (erdenetmc.mn).
The mine supports SDG 1 (No Poverty) by employing over 7,000 locals at above-average salaries and contributes to SDG 2 (Zero Hunger) through agricultural initiatives. It prioritizes SDG 3 (Good Health and Well-Being) by adhering to safety standards and promoting SDG 4 (Quality Education) through training at the “Erdenet complex” university.
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The company fosters SDG 5 (Gender Equality) with over 30% female employees and enhances SDG 6 (Clean Water and Sanitation) via local water system investments. It also supports SDG 7 (Affordable Clean Energy) through renewable energy research.
While contributing to SDG 9 (Industry, Innovation and Infrastructure) and SDG 11 (Sustainable Cities and Communities), challenges remain regarding environmental impacts. Efforts in reforestation and monitoring align with SDG 13 (Climate Action), but continuous improvement is needed to achieve SDG 12 (Responsible Consumption and Production) and protect life on land and in water (SDG 14). Transitioning to post-mining sustainability is crucial for maintaining commitments to erosion prevention and soil decontamination.
2.3 Rehabilitation planning
There are only a limited number of studies, particularly guidelines and concepts for mine rehabilitation planning in open-pit mining areas in Mongolia. Technical guidelines for the rehabilitation planning of open-pit coal mine areas in Mongolia were introduced by GROM (2019) and Frauenstein et al. (2021). According to the guidelines, the mine rehabilitation planning includes land restoration, public engagement in projects, ongoing environmental impact assessments during mining operations, landscape re-use based on the rehabilitation of abandoned mine areas and biodiversity conservation to identify pollution-sensitive areas. In the context of the Erdenet mining area, the Rehabilitation pyramid was introduced by Knippertz 2005 (Appendix 1. Figure 7). This concept can serve as a basic guide for the development of the rehabilitation plan and the extension of monitoring activities, ensuring that it is consistent with the specific environmental conditions and socioeconomic requirements of the Erdenet mining area. In developed countries, an interdisciplinary approach is suitable for validating the effectiveness of measures related to ongoing structural change in creating sustainable and multifunctional post-mining landscapes. There are cultural services such as aesthetics, spiritual value, educational opportunities and recreational amenities that ecosystems provide for the well-being of humans and other species (Gerwin et al. 2023). The concept of ecosystem services encompasses multiple functions, such as supporting nutrient cycling, maintaining soil health, supporting primary production and preserving biodiversity. It also includes the provision of essential resources such as food, fresh water and biomass energy. In addition, ecosystem services include climate regulation and flood prevention.
Furthermore, the incorporation of the Resource Nexus approach (Pashkevich et al. 2023; Brouwer et al. 2024), is relevant in the context of global former coal mines and in line with the principles of the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). This approach highlights the formulation of rehabilitation strategies, initially focusing on the elimination of hazards in surface and groundwater resulting from mine dumps. Simultaneously, it aligns with the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), specifically SDG 6 for clean water and sanitation, SDG 7 on affordable and clean energy and SDG 12 for responsible consumption and production. This ensures an understanding of societal needs in line with SDG 1 for no poverty, SDG 2 for zero hunger, and SDG 8 for decent work and economic growth. In addition, the approach extends to delineating land-use guidance based on SDG 9 for industry, innovation and infrastructure and SDG 15 for life on land. The phases of post-mining rehabilitation planning shown in Fig. 3 are based on the concepts and frameworks of the UN SDGs. By considering both these two overarching perspectives, rehabilitation strategies can effectively address not only environmental concerns but also socioeconomic aspects. This contributes to the establishment of sustainable landscapes and land use. For a more detailed explanation, it is essential to assess the initial conditions of environmental degradation and pollution before outlining rehabilitation plans. This includes comprehensive analyses of soil quality, surface and groundwater quality, air quality, potential risks to biodiversity and environmental degradation.
3 Study area
The Erdenet mining area is located in Erdenet city, Orkhon province, approximately 360 km northwest of Ulaanbaatar, the capital city of Mongolia. This region is characterized by its mountainous terrain, which includes various elevations between 1,000 and 1,800 m and diverse landscapes typical of northern Mongolia (Fig. 1). Founded in 1975 to exploit the country's copper ore reserves, it is now the country’s third-largest city with a population of 102,000 (NSO 2022) and plays an important role in the national economy. The city of Erdenet is located in the valley between the Selenge and Orkhon river catchment areas, within the mountain region of Khangai range. It is traversed by three rivers: the Erdenet, Gavil and Khangal. The Gavil and Erdenet rivers originate from the surrounding mountain valleys and converge into the Khangal river, which ultimately joins into the Orkhon river (Solongo et al. 2021). The climate condition of the city can be described as a dry winter subarctic climate (Dwc) according to the Köppen climate classification. The average temperature is 0.8 °C, the lowest temperature was recorded in January with an average temperature of − 17 °C, and the warmest month is July with an average temperature of 17 °C. The annual precipitation fluctuates substantially ranging from 260 to 598 mm during the past 30 years. Most of the annual precipitation falls between late May and September, and July is the month with the highest precipitation with an average rainfall of 100 mm (Fig. 2).
Fig. 1
Erdenet city with land-use regions and contour lines
The climograph of Erdenet city: Average, maximum and minimum temperatures and precipitation (1985–2014). Data source: Meteorological station in Erdenet city of Orkhon province, National Meteorological Agency Meteorology and Environmental Monitoring in Mongolia (NAMEM)
A systematic literature search was conducted to gather all published studies from January 2001–2021 on topics related to soil contamination, soil erosion and rehabilitation, particularly in the Erdenet copper-molybdenum open-pit mining area. The search was performed using three major academic databases: Scopus, Web of Science and Google Scholar. Specific search strings were designed to capture all relevant information. The terms used in the search included combinations of TITLE-ABS-KEY (‘soil erosion’ OR ‘soil contamination’ OR ‘rehabilitation’) AND TITLE-ABS-KEY (‘Erdenet city’ OR ‘Erdenet copper-molybdenum mining area’ OR ‘Erdenet’). This search strategy was implemented consistently across all databases; however, slight variations in syntax were adjusted according to the specific requirements of each platform.
Additionally, a local literature search was conducted at the National library of Mongolia in Ulaanbaatar to identify studies published in locally available books and journals. This search aimed to incorporate local knowledge and findings into the comprehensive review, including around 30 published papers, 10 internationally written reports and summaries of around 20 laws and regulations.
In parallel, a systematic review of the regulatory framework governing environmental sustainability in Mongolia's mining sector was conducted to assess the effectiveness of policies, laws and regulations at both the national and local levels. The review process involved searching various resources, including the official legal website of Mongolia (Legalinfo.mn) the official website of the Erdenet mining corporation (erdenetmc.mn) and databases such as Google, Google Scholar, ScienceDirect and Web of Science.
Keywords used in the web-based search were specifically selected to focus on various aspects of environmental sustainability and mining regulations in Mongolia. The search terms included phrases such as “Environmental sustainability laws in Mongolia”, “Mining sector regulations in Mongolia”, “Responsible mining practices in Mongolia” as well as additional keywords related to mining policy, environmental impacts and rehabilitation. These keywords were applied systematically across multiple platforms to ensure a comprehensive review of relevant literature, legal frameworks and regulatory guidelines. The review focused on evaluating laws and regulations that affect responsible mining practices and environmental rehabilitation, aiming to identify gaps and opportunities to enhance sustainable mining practices and mitigate environmental impacts in areas such as Erdenet city.
4.2 Spatial mapping of soil erosion and contamination
The spatial mapping of soil erosion and contamination in the Erdenet mining area employs a combination of methodologies to provide a comprehensive assessment of environmental degradation. This mapping effort is based on findings from our previous studies (Sodnomdarjaa et al. 2023a, b; 2024) conducted in the Erdenet mining area, which provided critical data for delineating areas at risk of soil erosion and contamination. To create the spatial maps, we utilized two distinct approaches:
4.2.1 Soil erosion assessment
The Revised Universal Soil Loss Equation (RUSLE) was applied to estimate soil erosion rates. The RUSLE model is defined based on monthly calculations (Schmidt et al. 2019) as follows:
$$A=R\times K\times LS\times C\times P$$
(1)
where A is the quantification of soil loss in a month (t ha–1 month–1), R is the rainfall erosivity factor (MJ mm ha–1 h–1 month–1), K is the soil erodibility factor (t h MJ–1 mm–1), LS is the topographic steepness factor (unitless) C is the cover management factor (unitless) and P is the support and conservation practice factor (unitless) (Schmidt et al. 2016, 2019).
4.2.2 Soil contamination assessment
Soil contamination was evaluated based on our previous study (Sodnomdarjaa et al. 2024) through topsoil sampling and heavy metal concentration analysis. A total of 48 surface soil samples were collected from diverse locations such as mining areas, urban and ger settlements and industrial zones (Fig. 1). These samples were analyzed to determine the concentrations of heavy metals and metalliods (Cr, Ni, Cu, Zn, As and Pb). These concentraions were then compared against reference values this study and the MPL of the Mongolian soil quiality standand (MNS 5850:2019). The data for heavy metal concentrations were converted into raster format using the inverse distance weighted (IDW) interpolation method with ArcMap 10.7.1 software. This method enabled the creation of a spatial contamination map that visually represents the distribution of HMM concentrations across the study area and identifying hot spots where contamination exceeds safe thresholds (Fig. 3),
Fig. 3
Spatial distribution of the highest soil erosion rate and contamination (more than two types of HMM presented area)
The spatial maps for soil erosion and contamination were generated by integrating the above approaches based on the previous studies (Sodnomdarjaa et al. 2023a, b and 2024). The integration of these datasets into the current mapping provides that elevated soil erosion rate and higher soil contamination. Specifically, areas with higher soil erosion rates (> 3–5 t ha−1 month−1) and soil-contaminated areas where soil heavy metals and metalloids exceed the maximum permissible limit (MPL) of the Mongolian soil quality standard (MNS 5850:2019) were identified, such as chromium (Cr > 60 mg kg−1), nickel (Ni > 60 mg kg−1), copper (Cu > 60 mg kg−1), zinc (Zn > 100 mg kg−1), arsenic (As > 10 mg kg−1) and lead (Pb > 50 mg kg−1).
4.3 Data derivation
A systematic approach was used to screen and analyze research findings related to the Erdenet mining area. The process included the following steps:
4.3.1 Data collection
Around 30 research articles, 10 reports and 20 legal documents were reviewed. These sources provided insights into various aspects of mining impacts, including environmental degradation, regulatory challenges and socio-economic effects.
4.3.2 Screening process
The collected data were screened based on relevance to the Erdenet mining area. This included:
Identifying studies and reports that specifically addressed issues related to soil and water contamination, tailings management and environmental health impacts.
Evaluating the applicability of legal documents in addressing mining-related environmental and socio-economic concerns.
4.3.3 Analysis and synthesis
The screened data were analyzed to extract key challenges and recommendations. This involved:
Categorizing findings into environmental status, law enforcement and SDG performance.
Synthesizing information to highlight major challenges such as soil and water contamination, regulatory gaps and impacts on sustainable development.
Formulating recommendations based on identified issues and best practices from the reviewed sources.
4.3.4 Presentation
The summarized findings and recommendations were compiled into a table format to provide a clear and concise overview of the critical issues and suggested actions for addressing the environmental and socio-economic impacts associated with the Erdenet mining area.
5 Results and discussions
5.1 Research findings: web and library sources
Table 1 presents the key challenges and potential recommendations identified from a review of approximately 30 internationally published articles (sourced from Web of Science, Google Scholar and Scopus) that specifically address the issues of soil contamination, erosion, tailings storage facilities and mining rehabilitation. In addition, around 10 internationally written reports focusing on the environment, socio-economy and sustainable development in Erdenet city were reviewed. In addition, around 20 laws relevant to cooperation between mining and environmental protection were considered.
Table 1
A summary of research findings from the web and library sources
Criteria
Challenges
Recommendations
Source
Data derivation
Environmental status
Soils near industrial, tailings storage facility, and mine areas show the highest Cu and Mo concentrations, primarily due to water and wind-driven dispersion
Continuous environmental assessments and monitoring are essential in the Erdenet mining area
Knippertz (2005), Kosheleva et al. (2010), (2017), Battogtokh et al. (2014), Timofeev et al. (2016), Yondonjamts et al. (2019), Chonokhuu et al. (2019), Jargalsaikhan et al. (2023)
Derived from these peer-reviewed articles that reported on soil contamination levels and dispersion mechanisms in the Erdenet mining area. Challenges were identified through thematic analysis of environmental impact studies
The absence of a protective lining under the tailing pond directly affects the Khangal river by increasing levels of SO4, Ca, Mg, Mo and As
Urgent source control measures are essential to mitigate these impacts
Identified from this study focusing on the impacts of tailings storage facility outflows on local water bodies. Data were screened for relevance to water quality and pollution
Increased accumulation of Cu and Mo in stream sediments due to leaks in the tailings storage facility and temporary storage of subgrade ore materials from rock piles during rainfall runoff and the lack of containment
Challenges related to sediment contamination were extracted from this study reporting on tailings storage facility outflows and runoff effects
Wind-driven dust from the tailings storage facility has evenly spread with heavy metals and metalloids contamination in soils in the area
Derived from this literature on dust dispersion and contamination, focusing on the impact of wind-driven dust from mining operations
The current tailings storage facility operates at around 60% capacity
Develop a mining closure plan for this reservoir. Build a new tailings storage facility within the next 10–14 years
Information from this study on tailings storage facility capacity and management plans. Recommendations were based on best practices for tailings management
The tailings storage facility in the area is estimated to contain 700 million m3 of residue material, covering 18 km2, with a rock-fill dam approximately 100 m high. It ranks one of the largest in the world and is associated with considerable negative environmental impacts
Urgent rehabilitation of the tailings storage facility is necessary, requiring collaboration between the mining industry and the public sector
Challenges identified through environmental impact assessments and reports on tailings storage facility size and impact. Recommendations were derived from this article
Mining operations in the Erdenet area consume a high amount of water and release pollutants, high concentrations of Cu, As and Mo found downstream of the Khangal river
In this area, a science-based environmental management concept is essential
Data derived from this study on water consumption and pollution in mining operations. Recommendations were based on identified needs for science-based management practices
Dry white dust from the tailings pond spreads over a long distance, up to 14–68 km, carried by winds. This airborne dust is linked to an increase in health problems, including heart attacks, respiratory issues, allergies, and other severe diseases
White dust dispersion significantly decreased during rainy days. It is recommended to first stabilize the areas by maintaining constant humidity through irrigation and then rehabilitate tailings storage facility by planting leguminous trees
Lkhagvadorj et al. (2017)
Derived from health impact and dust dispersion recommendations based on observed effects and mitigation strategies from similar environments
The current negative trend of forest regeneration inhibition due to overgrazing will further continue depending on the Cu-Mo mining in Erdenet
The presently most effective measure is to protect the impacted forest stands from additional grazing, primarily through methods like fencing
Challenges related to forest regeneration were identified through this study on grazing impacts and forest health. Recommendations were based on forest management practices and grazing control methods
The most significant contamination of HMM was identified in surface and groundwater near the tailings storage facility
It is crucial to encourage and support businesses in developing construction materials from tailings storage facility based on modern technologies and studies
Jargalsaikhan et al. (2023), Potravny et al. (2023)
Data derived from these contamination studies on tailings storage facility impacts. Recommendations focused on innovative uses of tailings based on industry advancements
Soil erosion is significant near the tailings storage facility, mining area and industrial zone
Planting trees and constructing drainage around the tailings and mine site to prevent water erosion
Challenges derived from analyses of law enforcement and regulatory reviews. Recommendations based on gaps identified in regulatory enforcement and monitoring
There are overlaps and gaps in laws and regulations related to environmental protection and assessments, land pollution caused by chemicals, toxic substances and the utilization of natural resources
Improving an information system for professional organizations to share the update on legal changes and relevant research
Identified from analyses of legal frameworks and gaps in environmental protection regulations. Recommendations focused on improving information systems and regulatory updates
Continuously update standards and rehabilitation plans to align with evolving laws and regulations, meeting the dynamic needs of modern development
SGSs perfor mance
Mongolia ranks 157th in the Environmental, Social, and Governance Index (ESG), despite its engagements with numerous donor institutions and its commitment as a signatory to UN SDGs and other related environmental protection initiatives
Innovative collaboration among the government, civil society and academics provides a pathway to developing Social Impact Assessment (SIA) legislation
Derived from ESG performance reviews and analyses of Mongolia’s engagement with SDGs. Recommendations based on collaborative approaches and legislative needs
It stresses the lack of relevant research and national debate on current global initiatives
Challenges identified through a review of research gaps and national debate on global initiatives. Recommendations focus on increasing research and discussion
Mongolia faces mining challenges, including influential companies, state strategies contributing to corruption, ongoing protests and a lack of effective guidance, regulation and experience
Challenges derived from analyses of mining sector issues, corruption and environmental degradation. Recommendations based on integrated management plans and collaborative efforts
Mining and other human activities have degraded around 48 ha of land, deforested 20 ha and 37 ha need both physical and biological rehabilitation. Nitrite levels in the Khangal River have increased to 1.8 times the national standard
Develop and approve a "Climate Change Adaptation and Mitigation Plan" to enhance soil, water, forest, biodiversity and waste management in Orkhon province
Bayarjargal et al. (2016)
The data on land degradation and deforestation were sourced from field studies and environmental assessments conducted in the Erdenet mining area. The increase in nitrite levels was identified through water quality monitoring reports. Recommendations were developed based on the observed environmental impacts and the need for comprehensive management strategies. The recommendations are based on best practices and policy suggestions from the reviewed literature
Establish a collaborative effort for environmental management from local to government levels, including workshops, training and green procurement promotion
Monitoring the progress of SDGs and their implementation status by the monitoring team
ESG-Environmental, Social and Governance
The table is organized into three main categories: Environmental status, law enforcement and SDGs performance. Each category outlines significant challenges, such as soil and water contamination and gaps in laws and regulatory enforcement, despite the existence of over 60 relevant laws and regulations on this topic. The recommendations are derived from proposed solutions and best practices found in the reviewed literature, existing regulatory frameworks and reports, providing an overview of necessary actions for achieving sustainable mining practices in the Erdenet area.
5.2 Analysis of SDG implementation gaps in Erdenet mining
This study evaluates the Erdenet mining company's social and environmental efforts in relation to the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). Despite some progress, notable gaps persist, particularly in addressing soil erosion and contamination.
Key challenges include a lack of transparency (SDG 16) and insufficient data on environmental impacts and rehabilitation efforts (SDG 15), hindering effective assessment. The company also prioritizes short-term mitigation measures over long-term sustainable strategies, resulting in weak alignment with responsible consumption and production (SDGs 9, 12).
To enhance alignment with the SDGs, the Erdenet mining company should improve transparency by publicly available environmental data and rehabilitation efforts, which would engage stakeholders and local communities (SDG 16). Implementing sustainable management practices, such as recycling tailings for construction materials, can reduce waste and support responsible production (SDG 12) while promoting ecosystem sustainability (SDG 15). Additionally, conducting hydrological analyses will help develop effective soil erosion mitigation plans and define zones for rain catchment systems, enhancing water management during critical periods (SDG 15).
Planting local vegetation around the mine rehabilitates degraded land and promotes biodiversity (SDG 15), while irrigation technologies can mitigate dust spread during dry periods, addressing climate impacts and reducing air pollution (SDG 13). Engaging local communities in environmental awareness programs empowers them to participate in sustainable practices (SDG 4) and manage environmental risks (SDG 11). Enforcing restricted zones around the mining area protects local populations, especially children, from harmful contaminants (SDG 3).
Finally, collaboration between the company, local communities, and the government is essential for monitoring environmental plans and developing a comprehensive post-mining rehabilitation strategy, fostering cooperation among stakeholders to effectively implement sustainable practices (SDG 17).
5.3 Finding the most eroded and contaminated terrain
The spatial map illustrating soil erosion and contamination was developed based on our previous comprehensive studies conducted in the Erdenet mining area (Sodnomdarjaa et al. 2023a, b). The primary purpose of this map is to delineate regions that exhibit higher rates of soil loss and elevated levels of heavy metals and metalloids contamination. The creation of this map is fundamental to understanding the extent and intensity of environmental degradation in the Erdenet mining area, enabling targeted mitigation and rehabilitation measures.
One of the central objectives of the spatial map is to provide a detailed representation of the increased soil erosion observed in the Erdenet mining area during the study period, from 1989 to 2018. In particular, the map aims to identify and highlight areas where the soil loss rate exceeds a range of > 3–5 t ha−1 month−1, based on the average monthly soil erosion rates observed during the study period. The map captures the dynamic changes in soil erosion patterns influenced by various factors such as rainfall intensity, vegetation cover and mining activities, thereby offering insights into the critical zones where soil conservation efforts are urgently needed.
Another key objective of the map is to identify regions with increased concentrations of heavy metals and metalloids such as Cr, Ni, Cu, Zn, As and Pb in the soils of the Erdenet area. The concentrations of these elements serve as thresholds for designating areas as soil-contaminated, based on the criteria of surpassing the MPL as outlined in the Mongolian soil quality standard (MNS 5850:2019). The use of these thresholds ensures that the map accurately reflects the severity of contamination and aligns with national regulatory frameworks.
Three different analytical methods, including sXRF, pXRF and ICP-OES, were used to assess heavy metals and metalloids pollution levels in the soil samples collected across the Erdenet mining area. Each method offers unique advantages: sXRF provides high sensitivity for a wide range of elements, pXRF allows rapid on-site analysis and ICP-OES delivers precise quantification of multiple elements. The integration of these methods ensures robust and cross validated results.
The area was considered to exceed the permissible limits for heavy metals and metalloids contamination if it had two or more overlapping elements, each exceeding the specified threshold at a single location point. This criterion was applied to accurately identify zones where cumulative contamination presents a significant environmental and health risk. Such multi-element contamination is particular concern in mining regions, where the combined effects of different pollutants can have collaborative toxic effects on soil health, plant growth and human safety.
Figure 3 illustrates the spatial map results, showing the distribution of areas with elevated soil erosion rates and concentrations of heavy metals and metalloids. The results for monthly soil erosion rates from 1989 to 2018 reveal that elevated soil erosion rates were primarily observed during the peak vegetation growing season and periods of peak precipitation. This seasonal pattern indicates that soil erosion in the Erdenet mining area is significantly influenced by climatic conditions, particularly rainfall intensity and vegetation cover dynamics. The highest soil erosion rates were recorded in July 2018, reaching a value of 8.31 t ha−1 month−1, especially in areas close to the TSF, industrial zones and regions with higher elevation. These findings suggest that soil degradation in these regions is significantly influenced by a combination of anthropogenic activities, climatic conditions, and topographical features.
In the spatial distribution analysis of heavy metals and metalloids, concentrations of Cu, As and Cr were found to exceed the MPL defined in the Mongolian soil quality standard (Sodnomdarjaa et al. 2024). This analysis considered both the background soil concentrations and reference sites to account for natural variability and accurately assess the impact of mining and other land use activities. These elevated concentrations are particularly concerning as they indicate potential ecological and health risks. Notably, these elements were found to overlap in the same locations when analyzed using at least two different analytical methods. For instance, Cr concentrations were found to be as high as 104 mg kg−1 when analyzed using both sXRF and pXRF methods, confirming the robustness of these findings.
Similarly, Cu concentrations were significantly higher, ranging from 271 to 475 mg kg−1, and these elevated levels were confirmed using all three analytical methods sXRF, pXRF and ICP-OES. These methods provided cross-validated results, reinforcing the accuracy of the spatial distribution analysis. For arsenic (As), concentrations were found to range from 11 to 29 mg kg−1 when assessed using sXRF and pXRF, indicating localized hotspots of contamination.
The spatial distribution of areas where heavy metals and metalloids concentrations exceed permissible levels was found mainly in the vicinity of mining areas, near the TSF and in some parts of the residential areas. This pattern suggests a potential risk of contaminant migration from industrial sources to nearby communities, highlighting the need for monitoring and mitigation efforts to manage both soil and public health risks effectively. These findings underscore the importance of integrating soil erosion and contamination management in mining regions, emphasizing the need for targeted soil conservation and remediation strategies to address the environmental challenges posed by mining activities.
5.4 Rehabilitation potentials
5.4.1 Land reclamation
The study of soil erosion in the Erdenet mining area from 1989 to 2018, based on data from our previous studies (Sodnomdarjaa et al. 2022 and 2023), reveals that both human activities and natural factors contribute to increased soil erosion rates. Human activities, such as mining operations and changes in land use, have led to localized increases in soil erodibility by disturbing soil structure, removing vegetation cover and affecting areas around mining transport and infrastructure. However, the data analysis shows that natural factors, particularly the intensity and variability of rainfall, play a significant role in shaping overall erosion patterns in the region. Rainfall erosivity emerged as the most dominant factor influencing soil erosion rates throughout the study period.
Our findings demonstrate that the highest soil erosion rates occurred during periods of intense rainfall. For example, in July 2018, the erosion rate peaked at 8.31 t ha−1 month−1, coinciding with the highest recorded rainfall of 120.24 mm in the study period. This observation is consistent with previous studies, which suggest that high rainfall amounts over short periods can significantly intensify soil erosion (Dunkerley et al. 2019; Zhao et al. 2021). Conversely, in April 2010, when the rainfall was at its lowest (8 mm), the soil erosion rate was minimal, at 0.05 t ha−1 month−1. This clear correlation between rainfall intensity and erosion rates supports the conclusion that natural factors, particularly precipitation, have a substantial impact on soil erosion in the area. Erdenet is located in the northern part of Mongolia and is characterized by mountain forest steppe, forest gray, and mountain steppe kastanozem soils. It receives relatively higher rainfall than other regions of the country, ranging from 260 to 590 mm annually (Fig. 2). While this area itself is not primarely known for mining industry, it is situated adjacent to the central agriculturalregions of Mongolia (Khadbaatar 2020). The abundance of organic matter and favorable climatic conditions make it a productive area for agriculture. Analysis of monthly soil erosion rates from 1989 to 2018 revealed that erosion rates are significantly higher during periods of increased rainfall variability, which coincides with the peak vegetation growing season in Mongolia (Table 2).
Table 2
The highest rate of soil erosion (t ha−1 month−1) recorded across various months from 1989 to 2018
Study area
Apr–May
June–Aug
Sep–Oct
Apr–Oct
Erdenet
0.42
4.96
0.49
1.96
The table shows that the highest soil erosion rates occur during the June–August period, aligning with rainy season when average monthly soil erosion rates can reach up to 4.93 t ha−1 month−1. Furthermore, elevated monthly soil erosion rates have been identified in the vicinity of the mine site, industrial areas and tailings pond, indicating that these zones are particularly vulnerable to erosion due to both natural and anthropogenic factors. To effectively control soil erosion, it is essential to implement measures to address the ecological conditions of the rainy season, such as the development of hydro-construction and water management plans should focus on water retention, drainage and pipelines systems based on existing stream networks, especially near the tailings storage facility and mining areas(Sodnomdarjaa et al. 2023a, b). Such measures would help in minimizing runoff and erosion in these highly affected areas.
Increasing vegetation and forest cover is another effective approach to preventing soil erosion, as it helps to stabilize the soil and reduce runoff (Liu et al. 2020). The local government of Erdenet City shouldintegrate comprehensive water management and forestation plans into its strategic planning efforts. This integration is crucial for mitigating soil erosion in line with both short- and long-term environmental management strategies. The successful implementation of an environmental management plan to mitigate and prevent soil erosion requires the inclusion of various components such as afforestation, drainage systems and protective barriers (Fig. 6). These elements will work collaboratively to enhance the resilience of the landscape against erosion, ensuring sustainable land use and environmental conservation in the Erdenet area.
5.4.2 Soil remediation
This study documented elevated levels of contamination in the vicinity of the mining site, tailings pond and industrial areas in Erdenet, using various analytical methods for evaluation. The concentrations of As, Cr, Cu and Zn exceeded than the MPL outlined in the Mongolian soil quality standards. In the topsoil near the Erdenet mine, Cu is mainly associated with the organic and sulfide fractions, while As and Zn are mainly associated with the residual and Fe/Mn oxide fractions (Yondonjamts et al. 2019). Mineralogically, Cu contamination in these soils is related to the presence of the mineral chalcopyrite (CuFeS2), while residual fractions of As and Zn may be adsorbed by quartz (SiO2). Contamination of soil with As in the vicinity of the Erdenet mine may be due to several factors. Deposits often contain trace amounts of As, and the excavation of overburden rock and sediments containing the metalloid can release it into the surrounding environment, where these materials can subsequently undergo weathering processes, resulting in leaching of As into the nearby soil. During the transportation and storage of ore, there is a potential for dust to spread into the immediate environment.
The pollution levels identified in this study, along with those reported in previous studies, should serve as the basis for deriving strategies for soil remediation. Liu et al. (2018) suggested the integrated use of multiple soil remediation techniques, such as chemical stabilization and phytoremediation at different project stages and locations, to effectively address soil contamination. Kumpiene et al. (2008) pointed out that it is difficult to deal with contaminated sites with elevated concentrations of several heavy metals and metalloids and that the mobility of the elements is mainly influenced by organic matter due to the soil pH. For example, the leaching of Cu, Zn, Pb, As and Cr is strongly pH dependent with the lowest mobility being around neutral to slightly alkaline conditions. Kumpiene et al. (2008) found that the soil pH has the most significant influence and shows a robust effect on element mobility. A successful soil remediation project includes key steps such as technology pre-screening, remedial investigation, feasibility study, selection of best remediation techniques, design and implementation of remediation practices and evaluation of performance (Liu et al. 2018). For As-contaminated soils, primary technologies include phytoextraction and chemical immobilization, with additional technologies serving as supportive measures. Future research should prioritize environmentally friendly bioremediation measures and the integration of potential supportive measures (Wan et al. 2020). Several approaches are available to mitigate excess Cu concentrations, including the use of organic fertilizers, applying poly (amidoamine) dendrimers and potassium lignosulfonate, rice straw biochar and specific plants such as Leersia hexandra, Elsholtzia splendens, Sedum plumbizincicola, Ipomea alpine, Eleocharis acicularis, Aeolanthus biformifolius, Commelina communis, Haumaniastrum katangense and Rumex acetosa (Mir et al. 2021). Recent studies (Bao et al. 2022; Ao et al. 2022; Wani et al. 2022) highlighted the promising potential of bioremediation for heavy metals and metalloids contaminated soil. This natural approach, utilizing endophytic fungi, plants, bacteria, mycorrhiza and algae, proves to be a safer and more innovative method compared to traditional physical and chemical remediation, effectively accelerating the removal of chromium, for example, from contaminated soil.
The mitigation of contamination with multiple metals poses challenges since element mobility is primarily influenced by soil pH and organic matter, but factors such as mechanical erosion, particle size distribution, etc., also affect the process. The most effective technologies for the removal and/or control of contamination with As, Cr, Cu and Zn include phytoextraction and chemical immobilization, with a special emphasis on the importance of environmentally sound and nature-based remediation. To effectively address the contamination of kastanozems in the arid subarctic climate, we recommend an integrated approach that includes techniques such as chemical stabilization and phytoremediation.
5.4.3 Future pathways for land use
In 2016, the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) in Mongolia conducted research regarding the long-term sustainability goals set for the year 2025 for the city of Erdenet in the Orkhon province, in line with the United Nations' Green and sustainable development goals. Based on the results of previous studies and project reports in the Erdenet mining area, as well as the legal framework governing the mining industry in Mongolia, the key challenges that need to be prioritized over the next 10–15 years to achieve sustainable operation of the Erdenet mine in line with the UN SDGs is summarized in Fig. 4.
Fig. 4
Summary of key challenges and recommendations for the next 10–15 years in the Erdenet area
Long-term successful rehabilitation needs to be linked to the definition of rehabilitation goals, the establishment of achievable success criteria and the comparison of performance indicators (Grant et al. 2016). There is also a need to enhance collaboration between the government, mine enterprises and research institutions to promote environmental protection and strengthen governance in the mining sector (Xu et al. 2023). Rehabilitation plans can serve as a comprehensive strategy to mitigate environmental impacts at the copper mine sites while aligning with broader sustainability goals such as the UN SDGs. It also requires ongoing environmental assessments, reporting and progress based monitoring and continuous improvement of the rehabilitation plan. A fundamental goal of the rehabilitation is to establish optimal land capabilities that can support a wide range of future land uses (Pavloudakis et al. 2020). A graphical representation (Fig. 5) was developed as a plan and recommendations for potential rehabilitation measures in the Erdenet area. The developed plan is consistant with the findings of previous studies, the environmental management and mine closure plan of the Erdenet mining operation and follows legal and regulatory standards.
Fig. 5
Rehabilitation pathways to recover the ecosystem in Mongolia, especially in the case of the Erdenet mining area
The primary rehabilitation recommendation derived from this study is visually represented by a general rehabilitation map, as shown in Fig. 6. The plan includes the construction of approximately 7 km of concrete road from the open-pit to the city's main road, the provision of approximately 500 hectar for soil quality improvement, 1000 ha for reforestation (new tree planting) and 30 ha for new drainage systems around the tailings storage facility and the open-pit mining area in the town of Erdenet. Reforestation initiatives are being undertaken in the areas surrounding of the open-pit mine site and the tailings storage facility. Despite the degraded and infertile soils in these areas, there is an urgent need to plant suitable trees adapted to the climate and environment in the Erdenet area, after improving the soil quality through biological and mechanical soil improvement processes. The afforestation initiative should be undertaken with a long-term plan to ensure sustainable maintenance and growth of the planted trees. A comprehensive and detailed assessment is required to redefine the afforestation, recultivation, drainage area and road length determinations. Terrer et al. (2021) summarized the results of 108 experiments on the absorption of CO2 by natural ecosystems. They found that the faster trees grow, the more soil organic carbon will be taken from the ground. Roots and microorganisms work more actively in symbiosis with trees and soil carbon turns into carbon dioxide and is released into the atmosphere. This is most evident manifested in forested steppes. So, if trees are thoughtlessly planted in steppe regions, erosion will be mitigated, but CO2 emissions can intensify. This contradicts SDG 13 on climate action, which demands to reduce global CO2 emissions by 45 percent by 2030 compared to 2010 and reach net-zero emissions by 2050.
The study suggests a rehabilitation plan for the Erdenet mining area that addresses soil erosion and contamination, while aligning with the UN SDGs. The analysis found that areas with higher levels of soil contamination often coincided with increased soil erosion. Exceedances of MPL in Mongolian standards for heavy metals and metalloids, such as Cu, As and Cr were detected in near the mining sites, TSF and some residential areas. Cr concentrations reached 104 mg kg−1, Cu concentrations were significantly higher, ranging from 271 to 475 mg kg−1 and As concentrations varied between 11 and 29 mg kg−1. Soil erosion increased during periods of heavy precipitation, reaching 8.31 t ha−1 month−1, particularly around TSF, industrial zones and elevated areas.
Key rehabilitation strategies include land reclamation and soil remediation to mitigate these challenges. The rehabilitation pyramid provides a framework for addressing issues such as soil erosion, contamination, water pollution, the distribution of white dust and waste accumulation. Exploring potential solutions, such as researching the recycling of tailings for use as construction materials, could help reduce waste and promote responsible production (SDG 12) while also contributing to ecosystem sustainability (SDG 15). Improved water management through hydrological assessments and rain catchment zones, alongside planting native vegetation, will also enhance biodiversity and ecosystem resilience (SDG 15). To manage dust and mitigate climate change impacts, irrigation technologies are essential for dust control during dry seasons, reducing air pollution (SDG 13).
Involving local communities is another critical aspect of successful rehabilitation. Raising public awareness and promoting environmental education will empower communities to adopt sustainable practices and help monitor environmental risks (SDG 4 and SDG 11). Creating restricted zones around contaminated areas, especially near mining sites, will protect vulnerable populations, including children, from harmful pollutants (SDG 3).
To address areas contaminated with As, Cr and Cu the plan suggests using chemical stabilization and phytoremediation techniques. Planting drought-tolerant native trees and plants will rehabilitate contaminated areas while restoring ecosystems and promoting sustainable land management (SDG 15). These efforts will also improve public health by reducing exposure to hazardous contaminants and minimizing waste (SDG 3 and SDG 12).
The long-term success of the rehabilitation plan will rely on collaboration between the mining company, local communities and government agencies. This approach ensures effective environmental monitoring and continuous improvement aligning with SDG 17.
Urgent actions are required to implement these measures over the next 10–15 years, along with continuous monitoring of soil contamination, erosion and environmental impacts. Further research is necessary to evaluate the effectiveness of rehabilitation efforts under local conditions, with a focus on ongoing monitoring and adaptive management of soil contamination, erosion and their environmental consequences.
Acknowledgements
The authors would like to express our appreciation for the German Academic Exchange Service (DAAD) for funding the scholarship for PhD sandwich program of RWTH AACHEN University and German-Mongolian Institute for Resources and Technology (GMIT).
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