9. Test Equipment and Measurements

The test structures described in Chapters 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, and 8 are designed for DC, low-frequency (≲10 MHz), or high-frequency (~GHz) measurements. DC characterization of MOSFETs and resistance measurements can be carried out with constant voltage or constant current power supplies, voltmeters, and ammeters. Capacitance measurements, in the absence of any on-chip active circuitry, require dedicated impedance meters operating over a range of frequencies. Frequency counters, spectrum analyzers, oscilloscopes, and pulse generators are used for AC measurements in the frequency and time domains. Silicon fabrication facilities are equipped with parametric and digital automated test equipment (ATE) coupled to computer-controlled wafer handling and data storage systems.