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2017 | OriginalPaper | Chapter

4. The Bond Market

Author : George Bragues

Published in: Money, Markets, and Democracy

Publisher: Palgrave Macmillan US

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Abstract

I explore the linkages between democracy and the bond market. My main contention is that democracy, far from being constrained by the bond market, mostly exploits it in order to manage an ever-growing public debt. Democracy is shown to be conducive to the legitimation and growth of interest bearing debt in society, a tendency exemplified in the recent US sub-prime mortgage crisis. Rather than being inhabited by bond vigilantes, the bond market is an all-too-willing accomplice in democracy’s susceptibility to excessive debt accumulation.

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Footnotes
1
Officially at least, such agency debt does not count as full-fledged government securities. Whether state or privately owned, these entities are supposed to operate on a for-profit basis. Bond investors, though, have usually treated them as having a state guarantee on their debt. This view was corroborated at the height of the financial crisis in 2008 when the federal government effectively nationalized both Fannie Mae and Freddie Mac by placing them under conservatorship.
 
3
Susan Strange, Retreat of the State: The Diffusion of Power in the World Economy (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1996); Joseph Stiglitz, Globalization and its Discontents, (New York: W.W. Norton, 2002).
 
4
Quoted from Thomas Friedman, “Foreign Affairs; Don’t Mess with Moody’s”, The New York Times, (February 22, 1995), http://​www.​nytimes.​com/​1995/​02/​22/​opinion/​foreign-affairs-don-t-mess-with-moody-s.​html
 
5
World Federation of Exchanges, “Statistics”, http://​www.​world-exchanges.​org/​statistics
 
6
According to a 2009 survey conducted by the Financial Industry Regulatory Authority (FINRA), only 21 % of respondents correctly stated that bond prices fall when interest rates, or yields, rise. See Library of Congress, “Financial Literacy among Retail Investors in the United States” (December 30, 2011), 27, http://​www.​sec.​gov/​news/​studies/​2012/​917-financial-literacy-study-part2.​pdf
 
7
European Central Bank, “Long Term Interest Rates”, http://​www.​ecb.​int/​stats/​money/​long/​html/​index.​en.​html
 
8
Figures presented here based on historical yield data provided by Sidney Homer and Richard Sylla, A History of Interest Rates (New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 1991). See tables at 156–157, 172, 195–196, and 222–223.
 
9
Bruno S. Frey and Marcel Kucher, “History as Reflected in Capital Markets: The Case of World War II”, The Journal of Economic History 60, no. 2 (2000), 468–496.
 
10
Sidney Homer and Richard Sylla, A History of Interest Rates, 352.
 
12
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13
Aristotle, The Politics, Bk I, Chap. 10.
 
14
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15
Bertrand Russell, History of Western Philosophy (London: Routledge, 2004), 181–182.
 
16
Felipe de la Cruz cited by Alejandro A. Chafuen, Faith and Liberty: The Economic Thought of the Late Scholastics (New York: Lexington, 2003), 122.
 
17
Jeremy Bentham, Defence of Usury (New York: Theodore Foster, 1837).
 
18
Jean-Jacques Rousseau, “Discourse on the Sciences and the Arts”, The First and Second Discourses, trans. Judith R. Masters (New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1964), 51.
 
19
Sidney Homer and Richard Sylla, A History of Interest Rates, 94–95 & 135.
 
20
James Macdonald, A Free Nation Deep in Debt, 110.
 
21
Emily Beaulieu, Gary Cox, and Sebastian Saiegh, “Sovereign Debt and Regime Type: Reconsidering the Democratic Advantage”, International Organization 66, no. 4 (2012), 709–738.
 
22
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23
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24
Steven N. Kaplan and Per Stromberg, “Leveraged Buyouts and Private Equity”, National Bureau of Research Working Paper, NO. 14207 (2008), http://​www.​nber.​org/​papers/​14207
 
26
Plato, The Republic, 561c–d.
 
27
Robert W. Kolb, The Financial Crisis of our Times (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2011), 187–225.
 
28
Daniel A. Bell, The Cultural Contradictions of Capitalism (New York: Basic Books, 1976).
 
29
Samuel Smiles, Self-help: With Illustrations of Characters, Conduct, and Perseverance (New York: Harper and Brothers, 1871), 329.
 
30
Richard K. Green and Susan M. Wachter, “The American Mortgage in Historical and International Context”, Journal of Economic Perspectives 19, no. 4 (2005), 93–114.
 
31
Christopher L. Peterson, “Fannie Mae, Freddie Mac, and the Home Mortgage Foreclosure Crisis”, Loyola Journal of Public Law 10 (2009), 155.
 
32
Richard K. Green and Susan M. Wachter, “The American Mortgage in Historical and International Context”, 97–99.
 
33
James R. Haggerty, Fannie Mae, 38–39.
 
34
United States Census Bureau, “Historical Census of Housing Tables”, http://​www.​census.​gov/​hhes/​www/​housing/​census/​historic/​owner.​html
 
35
Alicia H. Munnell, Lynn E. Browne, James McEneaney, and Geoffrey M.B. Tootell, “Mortgage Lending in Boston: Interpreting HMDA Data”, Federal Reserve Bank of Boston Working Paper, no. 92–7 (1992), http://​www.​bos.​frb.​org/​economic/​wp/​wp1992/​wp92_​7.​htm
 
36
Peter J. Wallison and Edward J. Pinto, “Free Fall: How Government Policies Brought Down the Housing Market”, AEI Financial Services Outlook, April 2012, http://​www.​aei.​org/​files/​2012/​04/​25/​-free-fall-how-government-policies-brought-down-the-housing-market_​154717638135.​pdf
 
37
Simon Johnson and James Kwak, 13 Bankers: The Wall Street Takeover and the Next Financial Meltdown (New York: Pantheon Books, 2010), 144–145.
 
38
Michael Lewis, The Big Short: Inside the Doomsday Machine (New York: W.W. Norton and Company, 2011). For more details on the film, see IMDb, “The Big Short”, http://​www.​imdb.​com/​title/​tt1596363/​
 
39
See the dissenting statement by Peter J. Wallison in The Financial Crisis Inquiry Commission Report (Washington: US Government Printing Office, 2011), 464, http://​fcic.​law.​stanford.​edu/​report
 
40
HUD quoted by Peter J. Wallison and Edward J. Pinto, “Free Fall: How Government Policies Brought Down the Housing Market”, AEI Financial Services Outlook, 4.
 
42
IMF, “Global Financial Stability Report”, 126.
 
43
IMF, “Global Financial Stability Report”, 117.
 
44
Timothy J. Sinclair, The New Masters of Capital: American Bond Rating Agencies and the Politics of Creditworthiness (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 2005).
 
45
Lawrence White, “Markets: The Credit Rating Agencies”, Journal of Economic Perspectives 24, no. 2 (2010), 214.
 
46
Robert W. Kolb, The Financial Crisis of our Time, 220.
 
47
Emily McCllintock Ekins and Mark A. Calabria, “Regulation, Market Structure, and the Role of Credit Rating Agencies”, Policy Analysis, (August 1, 2012), 7–10, www.​cato.​org/​pubs/​pas/​PA704.​pdf
 
48
Herwig Langhor and Patricia Langhor, The Rating Agencies and Their Credit Ratings: What They Are, How They Work, and Why They Are Relevant (West Sussex, UK: John Wiley and Sons, 2008), 431–432.
 
49
Emily McCllintock Ekins and Mark A. Calabria, “Regulation, Market Structure, and the Role of Credit Rating Agencies”, 29–30.
 
50
SEC, “Dodd-Frank Act Rulemaking: Credit Rating Agencies”, http://​www.​sec.​gov/​spotlight/​dodd-frank/​creditratingagen​cies.​shtml
 
51
See, for example, Securities and Exchange Commission, “Removal of Certain References to Credit Ratings under the Securities and Exchange Act of 1934” (December 27, 2013), http://​www.​sec.​gov/​rules/​final/​2013/​34-71194.​pdf
 
52
Alexis de Tocqueville, Democracy in America, 671.
 
53
James Macdonald, A Free Nation Deep in Debt, 73.
 
54
Max Winkler, Foreign Bonds: An Autopsy (Washington: Beard Books, 1999).
 
55
Carmen M. Reinhart and Kenneth S. Rogoff, This Time is Different: Eight Centuries of Financial Folly (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2009), 34–47.
 
56
Carmen M. Reinhart and Kenneth S. Rogoff, This Time is Different: Eight Centuries of Financial Folly, 21–33.
 
57
Adam Smith, The Wealth of Nations, I, x, b.
 
58
Emma Ross-Thomas and Andrew Davis, “Greece’s Debt Cut to Junk, First for Euro Member”, Bloomberg, (April 27, 2010), http://​www.​bloomberg.​com/​news/​2010-04-27/​greek-debt-cut-to-junk-at-s-p.​html
 
59
Huw Jones, “Global Bank Watchdog to Review Rule on Zero Weighting of Sovereign Debt”, Reuters, (January 23, 2015), http://​www.​reuters.​com/​article/​2015/​01/​23/​basel-sovereign-regulations-idUSL6N0V22ZO201​50123
 
60
IMF, “Historical Debt Database”, http://​www.​imf.​org/​external/​ns/​cs.​aspx?​id=​262. For a description of the database, see S. Ali Abbas, Nazim Belhocine, Asmaa ElGanainy, and Mark Horton, “A Historical Public Debt Database”, IMF Working Paper, no. WP/10/2045 (2010), http://​www.​imf.​org/​external/​pubs/​ft/​wp/​2010/​wp10245.​pdf
 
61
See Laurence J.Kotlikoff and Scott Burns, The Clash of Generations: Saving Ourselves, Our Kids, and Our Economy (Cambridge, MA: The MIT Press, 2012).
 
Metadata
Title
The Bond Market
Author
George Bragues
Copyright Year
2017
DOI
https://doi.org/10.1057/978-1-137-56940-0_4