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2021 | OriginalPaper | Chapter

4. The Conflicted Making of International Refugee Law

Author : Magdalena Smieszek

Published in: The Evolving Psyche of Law in Europe

Publisher: Springer International Publishing

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Abstract

The troublesomeness of the refugee label is longstanding from multiple angles, whether expressed by the sentiments of delegates within the process of creating a legal definition that attained standing through the United Nations in 1951, or the experience of persons that had sought refuge, as expressed in Hannah Arendt’s essay in 1943, persons for whom the legislation was created. These days, refugee law literature focuses extensively on contemporary legal manifestations—and there is plenty of material to reflect on with nearly daily developments in a state of the world that produces increasing numbers of refugees. And yet, while human psychology and its legislative formations are malleable, they can also be stubbornly enduring. A psycho-historical reflection is needed, some of which was started in Chap. 2 on the origins of asylum and it is apt to continue with the beginnings of international refugee law as of the twentieth century with its focus on Europe. The idiom goes that hindsight is 20/20 with clarity when looking at the past, though it is difficult to get the full context and mindset of a different era, especially through the skewed lens of the present, looking back does permit a connecting of the dots. Importantly, this is best done through an updated set of tools and perspectives for understanding the evolution.

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Footnotes
1
Sztucki (1999), p. 55 citing: GAOR, 5th Session, 3rd Committee, p. 338, UN Doc. A/C.325 (Summary Record of the 325th meeting, 24 November 1950, para. 40).
 
2
Arendt (2007), p. 264. Hannah Arendt had original published her article in a Jewish periodical called The Menorah Journal in 1943.
 
3
189 UNTS 137, in force 22 April 1954.
 
4
A side-point on language for this chapter: Unlike in present day usage, the term asylum seeker was not used at the time of drafting leading up to the convention in 1951. Therefore, in this chapter, the reference will be to refugees to include those that are seeking asylum when discussing the refugee definition in Article 1.
 
5
Hathaway (2005); Hathaway (1984), pp. 348–380; Macartney (1931), pp. 46–73; Arrangement with respect to the Issue of Certificates of Identity to Russian Refugees (signed 5 July 1922) 355 LNTS 238; League of Nations, “Armenian Refugees: Report by Dr Fridtjof Nansen High Commission for Refugees” (31 May 1924) LN Doc C 237 1924, Annex, 6; Arrangement relating to the Issue of Identity Certificates to Russian and Armenian Refugees, Supplementing and Amending the Previous Arrangements dated July 5, 1922, and May 31, 1924 (signed 12 May 1926) 89 LNTS 47; Arrangement relating to the Legal Status of Russian and Armenian Refugees (signed 30 June 1928, entered into force 5 March 1929) 89 LNTS 53, 55.
 
6
Einarsen (2011), p. 44 [hereafter Einarsen, Drafting History].
 
7
Skran (2011), p. 2 [hereinafter Skran, Historical Development] at 98–103.
 
8
Einarsen, Drafting History supra note 6 at p. 44 citing Skran, Historical Development at p. 14.
 
9
Arrangement Concerning the Extension to Other Categories of Certain Measures Taken in Favour of Russian and Armenian Refugees, 30 June 1928, League of Nations, Treaty Series, 1929; 89 LNTS 63. Resolution (2) referred to any person of “Assyrian or Assyro- Chaldean origin, and also by assimilation any person of Syrian or Kurdish origin, who does not enjoy or who no longer enjoys the protection of the State to which he previously belonged and who has not acquired or does not possess another nationality.” A Turkish refugee was any person who is “of Turkish origins, previously a subject of the Ottoman empire, who … does not enjoy or no longer enjoys the protection of the Turkish Republic and who has not acquired another nationality”; Skran, Historical Development, supra note 7 at 19.
 
10
Convention Relating to the International Status of Refugees (signed 28 October 1933, entered into force 13 June 1935) 159 LNTS 3663; Einarsen, Drafting History supra note 6 at p. 44 para 10; Skran, Historical Development, supra note 7 at 28–67.
 
11
Einarsen, Drafting History supra note 6 at p. 44 para 11.
 
12
Ibid at p. 45; Skran, Historical Development, supra note 7 at p. 96.
 
13
Ibid; Kjaerum, IJRL 6 (1994), at 444, 448.
 
14
Zolberg et al. (1989); Stenberg (1989), pp. 48–49.
 
15
Salomon (1991), pp. 157, 161 cited in Einarsen, Drafting History supra note 6 at 45.
 
16
Ibid.
 
17
Einarsen, Drafting History supra note 6 at p. 46 para 15.
 
18
Ibid.
 
19
Goodwin-Gill (1994), pp. 378, 389.
 
20
Ibid; Foster and Lambert (2019).
 
21
Kneebone (2016); Hathaway (1991), pp. 2–6. Hathaway refers to three perspectives between 1920 and 1950: the juridical (membership of a particular group deprived of government protection), the social (casualties of social or political occurrences), and the individualistic (individual in search of escaped from injustice or incompatibility with her home state).
 
22
1933 Convention, supra note 10; Convention Concerning the Status of Refugees Coming from Germany (signed 10 February 1938) 192 LNTS 59, arts 1 (a) and (b); Additional Protocol to the Provisional Arrangement and to the Convention (signed at Geneva on 4 July and 10 February 1938); Status of Refugees Coming from Germany (signed 14 September 1939) 198 LNTS 141, art 1(1) (signed 28 October 1933, entered into force 13 June 1935) 159 LNTS 3663; Convention Concerning the Status of Refugees Coming from Germany (signed 10 February 1938) 192 LNTS 59, arts 1 (a) and (b); Additional Protocol to the Provisional Arrangement and to the Convention (signed at Geneva on 4 July and 10 February 1938); Status of Refugees Coming from Germany (signed 14 September 1939) 198 LNTS 141, art 1(1).
 
23
UN General Assembly Resolution 428 (V) of 14 December 1950 (Annex); para 1 of the Statute of the Office of the High Commissioner for Refugees, as revised by General Assembly res. 58/153, 22 December 2003.
 
24
Hathaway (2012), p. 177.
 
25
Bates (2010), pp. 32–33; Dupré (2015), p. 177—“The next major stage in the development of constitutionalism as a form of humanism was a response to Europeans’ traumatic experience of inhumanity under the Nazi regime, the Holocaust and the Second World War.”
 
26
Donnelly (2012), p. 25.
 
27
Forward by Falk (2008), p. xvi: “Without a doubt the strongest of all the antecedent developments to the rise of human rights was the psycho-political impact of the Holocaust and the sense of guilt felt within the liberal democracies about how little had been done to block Adolf Hitler’s genocidal path of action.”
 
28
Barreto (2006), pp. 73–106. Quoting Adorno: “The coldness of the societal monad, the isolated competitor, was the precondition, as indifference to the fate of others, for the fact that only very few people reacted. (…) The inability to identity with others was unquestionably the most important psychological condition for the fact that something like Auschwitz could have occurred in the minds of more or less civilised innocent people. (…) If coldness were not a fundamental trait of anthropology, that is, the constitution of people as they in fact exist in our society, if people were not profoundly indifferent toward whatever happens to everyone else except for a few to whom they are closely bound, and if, possible, by tangible interests, then Auschwitz would not have been possible” at 92.
 
29
Ibid at p. 105.
 
30
Einarsen, Drafting History supra note 6 at p. 45 para 11.
 
31
Ibid at 49–50.
 
32
Einarsen, Drafting History supra note 6 at p. 45.
 
33
Hathaway (1990), pp. 151–157; Hathaway (1991), p. 6.
 
34
Hathaway (1991), pp. 7–8.
 
35
Conference of Plenipotentiaries, UN Doc. A/ CONF. 2/ 108/ Rev. 1 (1951), p. 9. “The Conference Expresses the hope that the Convention Relating to the Status of Refugees will have value as an example exceeding its contractual scope and that all nations will be guided by it in granting so far as possible to persons in their territory as refugees and who would not be covered by the terms of the Convention, the treatment for which it provides.”
 
36
UN General Assembly, Protocol Relating to the Status of Refugees, 31 January 1967, United Nations, Treaty Series, vol. 606, p. 267.
 
37
Economic and Social Council resolution No. 248 (IX) adopted 8 August 1949.
 
38
Ad Hoc Committee on Statelessness and Related Problems, UN Doc. E/AC.32/SR.33 (1950), p. 1.
 
39
Ibid.
 
40
Einarsen, Drafting History supra note 6 at p. 54 para 33.
 
41
Ibid at 55 para 34.
 
42
Ibid.
 
43
Ibid 56 para 38.
 
44
Statement of Henkin (USA), Ad Hoc Committee on Statelessness and Related Problems, UN Doc. E/AC.32/SR.3 (1950), p. 9 (para 37).
 
45
Australia, Belgium, Brazil, Canada, Chile, China (Taiwan), Denmark, France, India, Iran, Mexico, Pakistan, Peru, the United Kingdom and the United States.
 
46
Statement of Brohi (Pakistan), ECOSOC, UN ECOSOCOR, 11th Sess., SR 399 (1950), paras. 29–30.
 
47
Statement of Davidson (Canada) ECOSOC, UN ECOSOCOR, 11th Sess., SR 406 (1950), paras 89–90.
 
48
Statement of Rochefort (France), ECOSOC, UN ECOSOCOR, 11th Sess., SR 406 (1950), para 55.
 
49
Secretary-General, UN Doc. A/1385 (1950), para 9.
 
50
Statement of Soldatov (USSR), GA, UNGAOR, 5th Sess., PM 325 (1950), paras. 72–73; Statement of Drohojowski (Poland), GA, UNGAOR, 5th Sess., PM 325 (1950), paras. 111–113.
 
51
GA, UNGAOR, 5th Sess., PM 325 (1950), para 97.
 
52
Conference of Plenipotentiaries, UN Doc. A/ CONF. 2/ 108/ Rev. 1 (1951), p. 9.
 
53
Statement of Mr. Rees of the International Association of Voluntary Agencies, U.N. GAOR Conference of Plenipotentiaries on the Status of Refugees and Stateless Persons, Summary Record of the Nineteenth Meeting at 4, U.N. Doc. A/CONF.2ISR. 19, at 4 (1951).
 
54
Ibid.
 
55
Ibid.
 
56
Ibid.
 
57
Statement of Mr. Chance (Canada), U.N. GAOR Conference of Plenipotentiaries on the Status of Refugees and Stateless Persons, Summary Record of the Nineteenth Meeting at 4, U.N. Doc. A/CONF.2ISR. 19 (1951) [hereinafter Statement of Canada at 19th Meeting].
 
58
Ibid.
 
59
Through automatic granting of permanent residence along with civil rights, followed by citizenship within 5 years at the time. That was in later years reduced to 3 years.
 
60
Statement of Canada at 19th Meeting, supra note 57.
 
61
Ibid.
 
62
Ibid.
 
63
Ibid.
 
64
Ibid.
 
65
Statement of Mr. Rochefort (France), Conference of Plenipotentiaries on the Status of Refugees and Stateless Persons: Summary Record of the Nineteenth Meeting, 26 November 1951, A/CONF.2/SR.19 [hereinafter Statement of France at 19th Meeting].
 
66
Ibid.
 
67
Ibid.
 
68
Ibid.
 
69
Statement of France at 19th Meeting, supra note 65. Emphasis added.
 
70
Ibid.
 
71
Ibid.
 
72
Ibid.
 
73
Ibid.
 
74
Ibid.
 
75
The compromise solution proposed by the French delegation “while still trying to arrive at as liberal and generous a text as possible” was approved with the General Assembly resolution of 1949 (319 (IV)) and thereafter the Economic and Social Council in 1950 (Council resolution 319 (XI)). That draft had the words “in Europe” in article 1 concerning the refugee definition had been included in the drafts of the Ad hoc Committee and the Economic and Social Council, but were taken out at the last minute.
 
76
Statement of France at 19th Meeting, supra note 65.
 
77
Ibid.
 
78
Ibid.
 
79
Statement of Mr. Herment of Belgium, U.N. GAOR Conference of Plenipotentiaries on the Status of Refugees and Stateless Persons, Summary Record of the Twentieth Meeting, U.N. Doc. A/CONF.2ISR. 20 (1951).
 
80
Ibid.
 
81
Ibid.
 
82
Ibid.
 
83
Statement of Mr. Rochefort of France, U.N. GAOR Conference of Plenipotentiaries on the Status of Refugees and Stateless Persons, Summary Record of the Twentieth Meeting, U.N. Doc. A/CONF.2ISR. 20 (1951) [hereinafter Statement of France at 20th meeting].
 
84
Ibid.
 
85
Ibid.
 
86
Ibid.
 
87
Statement of France at 19th Meeting, supra note 65.
 
88
Ibid. Emphasis added.
 
89
Ibid.
 
90
Ibid.
 
91
Ibid.
 
92
Ibid.
 
93
Statement of Mr. Petren of Sweden, U.N. GAOR Conference of Plenipotentiaries on the Status of Refugees and Stateless Persons, Summary Record of the Nineteenth Meeting, U.N. Doc. A/CONF.2ISR. 19 (1951).
 
94
Statement of Mr. del Drago of Italy, U.N. GAOR Conference of Plenipotentiaries on the Status of Refugees and Stateless Persons, Summary Record of the Nineteenth Meeting, U.N. Doc. A/CONF.2ISR. 19 (1951).
 
95
Ibid.
 
96
Ibid. Full statement: “The Italian Government would find it extremely difficult to accede to the Convention if the original text of article 1 were not reinstated, so as to restrict the application of the Convention to European refugees alone.”
 
97
Statement of Mr. del Drago of Italy, U.N. GAOR Conference of Plenipotentiaries on the Status of Refugees and Stateless Persons, Summary Record of the Twenty-first Meeting, U.N. Doc. A/CONF.2ISR. (1951).
 
98
See d’Albi (2018) and Kancs and Lecca (2017).
 
99
Statement of Mr. Bell of the Friends’ World Committee for Consultation, U.N. GAOR Conference of Plenipotentiaries on the Status of Refugees and Stateless Persons, Summary Record of the Twentieth Meeting, U.N. Doc. A/CONF.2ISR. (1951).
 
100
Ibid.
 
101
Ibid.
 
102
Statement of Ms. Sender from the International Confederation of Free Trade Unions, U.N. GAOR Conference of Plenipotentiaries on the Status of Refugees and Stateless Persons, Summary Record of the Twentieth Meeting, U.N. Doc. A/CONF.2ISR. (1951).
 
103
Statement of Mr. Mostafa Bey of Egypt, U.N. GAOR Conference of Plenipotentiaries on the Status of Refugees and Stateless Persons, Summary Record of the Nineteenth Meeting, U.N. Doc. A/CONF.2ISR. 19 (1951) [hereinafter Comment of Egypt at 19th meeting].
 
104
Ibid.
 
105
Ibid.
 
106
Statement of Mr. Hoare of the United Kingdom, U.N. GAOR Conference of Plenipotentiaries on the Status of Refugees and Stateless Persons, Summary Record of the Nineteenth Meeting, U.N. Doc. A/CONF.2ISR. 19 (1951) [hereinafter Statement of the United Kingdom at 19th meeting].
 
107
Ibid.
 
108
Ibid.
 
109
Huntington (1993), p. 31; Rich (1999), p. 436; Asad (2002), pp. 209–227.
 
110
Ibid.
 
111
Statement of Mr. Warren of the United States, U.N. GAOR Conference of Plenipotentiaries on the Status of Refugees and Stateless Persons, Summary Record of the Nineteenth Meeting, U.N. Doc. A/CONF.2ISR. 19 (1951) [hereinafter Statement of the United States at 19th meeting].
 
112
Statement of the United Kingdom at the 19th meeting, supra note 106. Emphasis added.
 
113
Ibid.
 
114
Ibid.
 
115
Statement of the United States at 19th meeting, supra note 111.
 
116
Statement of Mr. Warren of the United States, U.N. GAOR Conference of Plenipotentiaries on the Status of Refugees and Stateless Persons, Summary Record of the Twenty-First Meeting, U.N. Doc. A/CONF.2ISR. (1951).
 
117
Statement of Mr. Makiedo of Yugoslavia, U.N. GAOR Conference of Plenipotentiaries on the Status of Refugees and Stateless Persons, Summary Record of the Twenty-First Meeting, U.N. Doc. A/CONF.2ISR. (1951).
 
118
Ibid.
 
119
Statement of Mr. Robinson of Israel, U.N. GAOR Conference of Plenipotentiaries on the Status of Refugees and Stateless Persons, Summary Record of the Twenty-First Meeting, U.N. Doc. A/CONF.2ISR. (1951).
 
120
Statement of Mr. Habicht of the International Association of Penal Law, U.N. GAOR Conference of Plenipotentiaries on the Status of Refugees and Stateless Persons, Summary Record of the Nineteenth Meeting, U.N. Doc. A/CONF.2ISR. 19 (1951).
 
121
Statement of Mr. Rochefort of France, U.N. GAOR Conference of Plenipotentiaries on the Status of Refugees and Stateless Persons, Summary Record of the Twenty-Second Meeting, U.N. Doc. A/CONF.2ISR. (1951) [hereinafter Statement of France at the 22nd meeting].
 
122
Ibid.
 
123
Ibid.
 
124
Ibid.
 
125
Statement of Mr. Anker of Norway, U.N. GAOR Conference of Plenipotentiaries on the Status of Refugees and Stateless Persons, Summary Record of the Twenty-Second Meeting, U.N. Doc. A/CONF.2ISR. (1951).
 
126
Ibid.
 
127
Statement of France at the 22nd meeting, supra note 121.
 
128
Mr. Rochefort was supportive of this approach by calling it an “excellent solution” that had the “merit of reconciling the universalist principles upheld by the Vatican with a proper sense of the responsibilities involved”. The proposal of the Holy See was further supported by Mr. Philon (Greece), Mr. Schurch (Switzerland), Baron van Boetzelaer (Netherlands), and Mr. Petren (Sweden). Mr. Hoare (United Kingdom) did as well, since he not only stood for a universalist point of view but also a unanimous solution. Mr. Herment (Belgium) was “very happy” for the proposal, hoping that the Conference would not again be divided.
 
129
Statement of Mr. Rochefort of France, U.N. GAOR Conference of Plenipotentiaries on the Status of Refugees and Stateless Persons, Summary Record of the Thirtieth Meeting, U.N. Doc. A/CONF.2ISR. (1951) [hereinafter Statement of France at the 30th meeting].
 
130
Ibid. Emphasis added.
 
131
Ibid. Emphasis added.
 
132
Ibid.
 
133
Statement of Mr. Hoare of the United Kingdom, U.N. GAOR Conference of Plenipotentiaries on the Status of Refugees and Stateless Persons, Summary Record of the Thirtieth Meeting, U.N. Doc. A/CONF.2ISR. (1951).
 
134
Ibid.
 
135
Ibid.
 
136
Statement of France at the 30th meeting, supra note 129.
 
137
Statement of Mr. Chance (Canada), U.N. GAOR Conference of Plenipotentiaries on the Status of Refugees and Stateless Persons, Summary Record of the Thirtieth Meeting, U.N. Doc. A/CONF.2ISR. (1951).
 
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Metadata
Title
The Conflicted Making of International Refugee Law
Author
Magdalena Smieszek
Copyright Year
2021
DOI
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-74413-7_4