1. The Construction of China’s State System

On January 6, 2013, Xi Jinping delivered a speech to the new members of the Central Committee at a candidates’ seminar on learning and implementing the spirit of the 18th National People’s Congress. Xinhua News Agency, January 5, 2013, Beijing.

On June 25, 2013, the Political Bureau of the C.P.C. Central Committee organized the seventh collective study of the Political Bureau of the C.P.C. Central Committee on the theories and practices of socialism with Chinese characteristics. During the study, General Secretary Xi emphasized that history is the best textbook. To understand the history of the Party and the state is a compulsory course, designed to promote and develop socialism with Chinese characteristics and encourage various Party and country causes to press ahead. The course is not only compulsory, but must be studied thoroughly. Xinhua News Agency, June 25, 2013, Beijing.

Jin Chongji: A Biography of Mao Zedong (1893–1949), P. 908, Central Party Literature Press, 1996.

The preface to the Common Programme specifies that the Chinese people’s democratic dictatorship constitutes the working class, peasant class, petty bourgeoisie, national bourgeoisie and other patriotic nationalist political powers of the people’s democracy and united front. It is based on a worker-peasant alliance, and is led by the working class. The Common Programme of the Chinese People’s Political Consultative Conference (September 29, 1949, the First Plenary Session of the Chinese People’s Political Consultative Conference was passed), C.P.C. Party Literature Research Office: Selected Works of Important Literature since the Founding of the P.R.C., Book 1, Central Party Literature Press, 1992.

In a report about the Drafting Process and Characteristics of the Common Programme Draft by Chinese People’s Political Consultative Conference, Zhou Enlai pointed out that the regime of the new democracy was a system of democratic centralism designed by the National People’s Congress. It was totally different from the parliamentary system of the former democracy, and belonged to the classification of the representatives’ conference of the socialist Soviet Union. However, it was also completely different from the Soviet system, because it eradicated class, while the Chinese system was based on an alliance of all revolutionary classes. Zhou Enlai, Characteristics of the Common Programme Draft by the Chinese People’s Political Consultative Conference, September 22, 1949, C.P.C. Party Literature Research Office: Book 1, P. 17–18, Beijing, Central Party Literature Press, 1992.

Jin Chunming, Comment on Cambridge P.R.C. History, P. 8, Wuhan, Hubei People’s Press, 2001.

C.P.C. Party History Research Office: C.P.C. History Volume II (1949–1976), Book I, P. 173, Beijing, C.P.C. History Press, 2011.

Mao Zedong: The Party’s Leading Responsibility for Government Work, December, 1952, Mao Zedong’s Collected Works, Volume 6, P. 252, Beijing, People’s Publishing House, 1999.

Department of Comprehensive Statistics of National Bureau of Statistics of the People’s Republic of China: China Compendium of Statistics 1949–2008, P. 4, Beijing, China Statistics Press, 2009.

During the drafting of the Common Programme, Mao Zedong proposed either federal, republic or regional autonomy for ethnic minorities. With the C.P.C. Central Committee he eventually decided on regional autonomy. Pang Xianzhi, Jin Chongji: A Biography of Mao Zedong (1949–1976), Volume 1, P. 22, Central Party Literature Press, 2003. On September 7, 1949, when introducing the reasons for the C.P.C. Central Committee offering regional autonomy to ethnic minorities, Zhou Enlai advocated national autonomy, but wished to prevent imperialists from using national issues to disrupt China’s unification. His plan was to unite all sub-nations into a single family. Imperialists wanted to split Tibet, Taiwan and even Xinjiang, but Zhou expressed hope that imperialism would not win out. For this purpose, China was named a ‘People’s Republic’ instead of ‘Federation’. It is not a federal state, yet it proposes the regional autonomy of ethnic minorities, and exercises the right to national autonomy. See Zhou Enlai’s Collected Works of the United Front, P. 137, Beijing, People’s Publishing House, 1984. In March, 1958, Mao Zedong said that among the total population of the Soviet Union, Russian nationality accounted for over 50%, and minorities accounted for almost 50%; however, among the total population of China, Han nationality accounted for 94%, and minorities 6%, so China could not be a federal republic like the Soviet Union. Mao Zedong: Speech at the Chengdu Meeting, March, 1958, Mao Zedong’s Collected Works, Volume 7, P. 371, Beijing, People’s Publishing House, 1999.

In 1992, based on Lenin’s proposal, an alliance composed of Soviet republics with sovereignty was built, consisting of four former Soviet republics: the Russian Federation, the Republic of Belarus, the Ukraine, and the Republic of Caucasus. In 1924, the first constitution of the Soviet Union was passed at the Second Soviet Representatives’ Meeting. The constitution provided that all union republics were sovereign states, with the Soviet Union protecting their sovereignty; all union republics reserved the right to exit the Soviet Union; all union republics could formulate their own constitutions based on the basic principles of the constitution of the Soviet Union. Later, the number of Soviet Union members expanded to 15 union republics, and its territorial area reached 20 million km². In 1991, the Soviet Union officially collapsed, and was divided into 15 independent states. Now, the territorial area of Russia is 17.0754 million km², accounting for 76% of the former Soviet Union’s territory, ranking first in the world. The Russian Federation is made up of 89 federal subjects, including 21 republics, six frontier regions, 49 states, two federal municipalities, one autonomous region, and 10 national autonomous regions.

Article 51 of the Common Programme states that: ‘In the areas that minority nationalities inhabit, the regional autonomy of minority nationalities must be guaranteed, and various national autonomous organizations should be built based on the population of minority inhabitants and territorial area. The Common Programme of the Chinese People’s Political Consultative Conference (passed at the First Plenary Session of the Chinese People’s Political Consultative Conference September 29, 1949), C.P.C. Party Literature Research Office: Selected Works of Important Literature since the Founding of the P.R.C., Book 1, Page 12, Beijing, Central Party Literature Press, 1992.

Mao Zedong: On the Drafting of the Constitution of the P.RC., June 14, 1954, Mao Zedong’s Collected Works, Volume 6, P. 325–326, Beijing, People’s Publishing House, 1999.

Department of Comprehensive Statistics of National Bureau of Statistics of the People’s Republic of China: China Compendium of Statistics 1949-2008, P. 4, Beijing, China Statistics Press, 2009.

Mao Zedong: Report and Conclusions of the Conference of the Political Bureau of the C.P.C. Central Committee (September 8, 1948), Mao Zedong’s Collected Works, Volume 5, P. 136, Beijing, People’s Publishing House, 1999.

Pang Xianzhi, Jin Chongji: A Biography of Mao Zedong, (1949–1976), Volume 1, P. 323–324, Beijing, Central Party Literature Press, 2003.

http://​www.​gov.​cn/​test/​2005-06/​26/​content_​9626.​htm.

Mao Zedong: On Ten Great Relations (April 25, 1956), Mao Zedong’s Collected Works, Volume 7, P. 32, Beijing, People’s Publishing House, 1999.

Mao Zedong: On Ten Great Relations (April 25, 1956), Mao Zedong’s Collected Works, Volume 7, P. 31–33, Beijing, People’s Publishing House, 1999.

Mao Zedong: On People’s Democratic Dictatorship, June 30, 1949, Mao Zedong’s Selected Works, Volume 4, P. 1470–1471, People’s Publishing House, 1991.

A Chronicle of Mao Zedong’s Life (1949–1976), Volume 5, P. 226, Central Party Literature Press, 2013.

‘Concrete analysis of concrete issues’ was first put forward by Lenin, who wrote: ‘He has ignored Marxist essence and the living soul of Marxism’ when criticizing Béla Kun, a member of the Communist Party of Hungary in Communism (Lenin Selected Works, Volume 4, P. 290). In 1937, Mao Zedong reiterated Lenin’s views in his On Contradiction, writing that ‘the essence and living soul of Marxism constitute concrete analysis of concrete issue.’ Mao Zedong’s Selected Works, Volume 1, P. 312.

The ‘system’ standards for a complete set of institutions. In the Qin Dynasty, a system of prefectures and counties was established to replace the system of enfeoffment that had existed since the Zhou Dynasty. This episode in China’s ancient history has profound historic significance in terms of building a centralized mode of governance, and has become the basic mode of feudal states over 2000 years later. The ‘politics’ standards for a complete set of policies. With excessive, extreme and overdue policies, national finance is overwhelmed, and people cannot rehabilitate; thus the Qin was a ‘short-lived’ dynasty.

In 1987, the report of the 13th C.P.C. National Congress pointed that ‘for this issue, the Party has made beneficial explorations and important achievements; it has experienced twists and turns, and paid a high price. Since the late 1950s, we were affected by ‘left-leaning’ mistakes, and were anxious for success, went blindly to extremes, and thought that productivity would increase sharply by means of subjective wishes and depending on mass movement. We believed that socialist public ownership would be larger, better, and more public. In addition, we once put the task of developing productivity in second place, and insisted on class struggle even after the socialist transformation was basically finished. Many matters that restricted the development of productivity did not match the socialist essence, or were only suitable for particular historic conditions—regarded as ‘socialist principles’ and followed firmly; many things conducive to productivity development, product commercialization, socialization and modernization under socialist conditions were considered as ‘restorations of capitalism’ and opposed. The sole ownership structure and rigid economic system thereby developed, and a political system with excessive centralization of power closely related to such economic system has seriously constrained the development of productivity and a socialist commodity economy. This situation teaches us that a clear understanding of China’s national conditions and history is extremely important’. Zhao Ziyang’s Marching Forward Along the Socialist Road with Chinese Characteristics—Report of the 13th National People’s Congress of the C.P.C. Central Committee, October 25, 1987.

In March, 1990, the Soviet Union People’s Congress approved a resolution and abolished Article 6 of the Constitution.’ ‘The Communist Party of the Soviet Union is the leading and guiding force of Soviet society, its political system, and the core of national and social organizations. The Soviet Union no longer enjoys legal leading status’. Mikhail Gorbachev stated that such constitutional changes would initiate a new stage of socialist development.

In July, 1990, after the 28th Soviet Union People’s Congress, the Soviet Union officially announced ‘the closure of political monopoly’ and the implementation of a multi-party system.

On August 24, 1991, Mikhail Gorbachev, then President of the Soviet Union, announced his resignation from the post of General Secretary of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union, and suggests that the Central Committee of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union dissolve voluntarily, and all republics’ parties and local party organizations decide their own fate.

On December 25, 1991, Mikhail Gorbachev resigned as President of the Soviet Union, and the Soviet Union was officially dissolved.

On April 30, 1976, after Mao Zedong met Prime Minister Muldoon of New Zealand, he wrote three instructions to Hua Guofeng: ‘Take it easy’, ‘follow past methods’, and ‘I trust you’. Mao Zedong: Several Sentences Written during the Discussion with Hua Guofeng (April 30, 1976), C.P.C. Party Literature Research Office: Mao Zedong’s Manuscripts since the Founding of the P.R.C., Book 13, P. 538, Beijing, Central Party Literature Press, 1998.

Deng Xiaoping: Implementing Capitalist Liberalization through Taking the Capitalist Road (May and June, 1985), Deng Xiaoping’s Selected Works, Volume 3, P. 123–124, Beijing, People’s Publishing House, 1993.

Gong Yuzhi, Yang Chungui, Shi Zhongquan, Zhou Xiaowen: Re-reading Deng Xiaoping, P. 56–57, Party School of the Central Committee of the C.P.C. Press, 2004.

Deng Xiaoping: Implementing the Heart and Soul of Construction (September 18, 1982), see Deng Xiaoping’s Selected Works, Volume 3, P.11, Beijing, People’s Publishing House, 1993.

See details in Hu Angang’s Theory on China’s Political and Economic History (1977–1991), Research Institute of the National Conditions of Tsinghua University, August, 2011.

Deng Liqun introduced the drafting process of the address: ‘the key points and issues of the address were proposed by Deng Xiaoping himself. The drafting was held by me, and attended by Teng Wensheng, Zheng Hui and Wei Jianlin from the Research Office of the Secretariat of the C.P.C. Central Committee.’

Chen Yun: Cadre Handover—A Major Issue for the Party, (February 30, 1982), Chen Yun’s Collected Works, Volume II, P. 508 Central Party Literature Press, 2005.

At the working conference of the Central Committee on December 13, 1978, Deng Xiaoping remarked that the task of the Party’s discipline inspection commissions and its organization departments at all levels was not only to deal with particular cases but, more importantly, to uphold the Party’s rules and regulations and make earnest efforts to improve its style of work. Deng Xiaoping: Emancipate our Minds, Seek Truth from Facts, Unite as One, and Look Ahead, (December 13, 1978), Deng Xiaoping’s Selected Works, Volume II, P. 147, Beijing, People’s Publishing House, 1994.

Norm has 12 articles in total: (1) Uphold the party’s political line and ideological line; (2) Uphold the collective leadership, and oppose personal dictatorship; (3) Maintain party unification, and strictly abide by party discipline; (4) Adhere to party spirit and eliminate factionalism; (5) Speak the truth, and practice what you preach; (6) Promote party democracy, and treat different opinions correctly; (7) Guarantee inviolability of party members’ rights; (8) Elections must fully reflect the voters’ will; (9) Fight wrong leaning, evildoers and wrongdoings; (10) Treat comrades’ mistakes correctly; (11) Accept supervision from the party and the masses, and never grant privilege; (12) Study hard; be both socialist-minded and professionally competent.

A Biography of Ye Jianying preparation group: A Biography of Ye Jianying, P. 401–403, Beijing, Contemporary China Publishing House, 2006.

C.P.C. Party Literature Research Office: A Chronicle of Chen Yun’s Life (1905–1995) (II), P. 259, Central Party Literature Press, 2000.

A Biography of Ye Jianying preparation group: A Biography of Ye Jianying, P. 401–403, Beijing, Contemporary China Publishing House, 2006.

On March 28, 1981, Peng Zhen called Wang Hanbin, Xiang Chunyi, and Gu Angran to study the issues proposed during the modification of the Constitution. He said: ‘Comrade Deng Xiaoping has assigned me to be responsible for the issue of constitutional modification’. On September 30, Peng Zhen called Liu Fuzhi, Lin Mohan (then Vice Minister of the Ministry of Culture, and Vice President of the CFLAC), Liu Baiyu (then Minister of the Cultural Department of the People’s Liberation Army’s General Political Department) to discuss the same topic. He reminded them that Hu Qiaomu had been responsible for it, but later fell ill, so Hu Yaobang and Deng Xiaoping appointed him to take charge and finish it quickly. ‘I started in July. Comrades Hu Sheng, Wang Hanbin and Gu Min were responsible for specific jobs, and Comrade Gu Angran took the post of Secretary’. A Biography of Peng Zhen preparation group: A Chronicle of Peng Zhen’s Life, Volume 5, P. 115, Beijing, Central Party Literature Press, 2012.

The members of the Secretary Working Group of the Constitution Modification Committee include Hu Sheng, Gu Ming, Wang Hanbin, Xing Yimin, Xiang Chunyi, Gong Yuzhi, Gu Angran, Lu Zhichao, Wang Shuwen, Xu Chongde, Xiao Weiyun, Sun Li, and Xu Kongrang. Hu Sheng took the post of Deputy Secretary of the Constitutional Modification Committee. A Biography of Peng Zhen preparation group: A Chronicle of Peng Zhen’s Life, Volume 5, P. 116, Beijing, Central Party Literature Press, 2012.

A Biography of Peng Zhen preparation group: A Chronicle of Peng Zhen’s Life, Volume V, P. 92, Beijing, Central Party Literature Press, 2012.

Peng Zhen: Report on the Draft Amendment of the Constitution of the P.R.C. (November 26, 1982), Peng Zhen’s Selected Works, P. 453, Beijing, People’s Publishing House, 1991.

Peng Zhen: Report on the Draft Amendment of the Constitution of the P.R.C. (November 26, 1982), Peng Zhen’s Selected Works, P. 453, Beijing, People’s Publishing House, 1991.

A Biography of Peng Zhen preparation group: A Chronicle of Peng Zhen’s Life, Volume 5, P. 199–200, Beijing, Central Party Literature Press, 2012.

On February 20, 1982, the C.P.C. Central Committee made the Decision on Establishing a Retirement System for Veteran Cadres. The Decision covered central and state organ ministers, vice ministers, first secretaries, secretaries, provincial governors, vice provincial governors of provinces, cities and autonomous regions, major cadres responsible for discipline inspection committees, courts and procuratorates. None could be older than 65, and deputy cadres could not be older than 60. Heads of bureaux could not be older than 60. Moreover, the Decision indicated that among party and national leaders, a few old revolutionists could be retained beyond the retirement age, to maintain domestic security, unity, and correct treatment of international relations in the fundamental interest of the party and people. Working as counselors and taking honorary roles were forbidden in retirement. The C.P.C.’s Decision on Establishing a Retirement System for Veteran Cadres (February 20, 1982), C.P.C. Party Literature Research Office: Compilation of Important Works Since the Third Plenary Session (Book II), P. 1161, Beijing, People’s Publishing House, 1982.

In January 1990, Boris Yeltsin (then alternate member of the Political Bureau of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union, and the first secretary of the Moscow Municipal Committee) formed a ‘democratic programme group’ inside the Party.

On June 12, 1991, the Russian presidential election was held, and Boris Yeltsin won.