The Failure of a Pseudo-Democratic State in Afghanistan

Table of Contents

1. Frontmatter

2. Chapter 1. Introduction

   Francisco José Berenguer López, Juan Ignacio Castien Maestro

   Abstract

   The collapse of the Islamic Republic of Afghanistan was an exceptional event in terms of geopolitical affairs. Also, it meant the complete failure of the international mission developed by NATO under the direction of the USA. However, the analysis of these tragic events may be highly instructive in order to draw lessons for the future. To this end, it is necessary to undertake a multidimensional analysis. This collective volume is the first attempt in this sense, and it has involved the participation of a broad group of specialists from different disciplines who came from very different countries, as well as the involvement of several Afghan authors.

3. State Institutions and Society

   1. Frontmatter

   2. Chapter 2. Problems of Nation-Building in Afghanistan: Before and After the Last Taliban’s Takeover

      Juan Ignacio Castien Maestro

      Abstract

      This chapter aims to provide a general frame of discussion. It tackles the root problems in order to achieve a successful national construction in Afghanistan beyond the actual conflicts. These problems are related to the construction of a conciliatory national identity with respect to different ethnic groups, the role of Islam in this national construction and its complex adjustment regarding the needs of modernization, and the processes of institutionalization which are susceptible to moderate the power of clientelist networks.

   3. Chapter 3. Waves of Institutionalization in Afghanistan: From the Twentieth Century to the Collapse of the Islamic Republic of Afghanistan (2021)

      Said Hamed Wahdat Ahmadzada

      Abstract

      This chapter analyzes the difficulties of building solvent public institutions in Afghanistan. Without them, there is no point in talking about modernization and democratization. The main problem that Afghanistan has had to face historically has been the difficulty of the center to control local powers that have been articulated by means of powerful clientelist networks. This has hindered any institutionalization process considerably; therefore, the recent history of the country has been, to a great extent, a series of failed regimes.

   4. Chapter 4. History of Political Movements, Parties, and Organizations in Afghanistan Until the Collapse of the Islamic Republic

      Sidiq Wafa

      Abstract

      This chapter analyzes the absence of well-organized and established political parties, with well-defined action programs in the country. Afghan political parties have been historically weak. They have ranged between the small group that is bent on imposing its ideas by fire and sword and the clientelist coalitions with the distribution of perks among its members. Both models have proved to be ineffective. It has fluctuated from simplistic and messianic political projects and a reduction of the political game to schemes among the different corporate interests.

   5. Chapter 5. Role of Civil Society in the Construction of an Afghan Democracy

      Azizurahman Hakami

      Abstract

      This chapter analyzes the role of civil society in the construction of the Afghan State, including its achievements and its huge deficiencies. The building up of a civil active and well-organized society constitutes one of the fundamental conditions for the development of a solid democracy. The weakness of the Afghan civil society helps to better understand the failure of the semi-democratic experience initiated in 2001. This chapter also explains the work undertaken by ASEA, the organization the author currently chairs. Finally, it reflects on the role that this civil society may play in the new scenario marked by the Taliban victory.

4. Insecurity and Corruption

   1. Frontmatter

   2. Chapter 6. International Intervention in Afghanistan: Too Many Strategies and Lack of Courage for a Real Democracy

      Francisco José Berenguer López

      Abstract

      This chapter shows how international intervention was weighed down from the very beginning by serious mistakes like the incoordination between the different States and the international agencies, the tolerance of authoritarianism and the corruption of new Afghan rulers, the short-termism and the quick search for achievements susceptible to being advertised although not sustainable over time, the unconcern for the legitimacy of the new government and its international allies in the face of the population and, above all, the absence of a defined and long-term country project.

   3. Chapter 7. NATO’s Rise as a Global Security and Peace Actor

      Farhad Farzam

      Abstract

      This chapter focuses on the role undertaken by NATO as a reconverted organization, from its initial purpose of containing Soviet expansionism to the actual global actor involved in nation-building processes around the world. Its failure on this first large-scale mission is very instructive. Hence, some valuable lessons can be drawn from the difficulties in coordinating the work undertaken by different States, with approaches, organizational models, and interests that coincide partially, as well as with different levels of engagement. This first failure has left NATO in a delicate position.

   4. Chapter 8. The US and NATO Strategies in Afghanistan

      Francisco José Berenguer López

      Abstract

      This chapter analyzes the different military strategies, both USA and NATO, which have been followed throughout the international intervention in Afghanistan since the overthrow of the Taliban regime until the end of Operation Enduring Freedom (OEF) and the International Security Assistance Force (ISAF). During the thirteen years that these operations have lasted, the reasons for the changes made in the context of the situations that were experienced in each one of them are exposed, in order to try to understand the causes that justified them. Finally, some conclusions are brought, discussing the models followed in the light of the results obtained and lessons that are of interest for the future of this type of complex operations, which will undoubtedly have to be continued in the years to come.

   5. Chapter 9. The Reform of the Afghan National Army: From the Light Footprint Approach to the ANA Territorial Force

      José A. Fernández Alfaro

      Abstract

      This chapter analyzes the process of construction of the Afghan National Defense and Security Forces (ANDSF). His assertions about the deficiencies of these forces regarding their training and financing, but also the establishment of autonomous chains of command with respect to the disputes between the different coalitions and an appropriate interethnic balances in the heart of its official nature, help us to understand better its spectacular collapse in the summer of 2021. Thus, the mistakes made by the different international organizations that were entrusted with this task along with the shortcomings of the Afghan society illustrate at this specific point the big problems encountered when it comes to establishing a minimally effective state.

   6. Chapter 10. Opium as a Source of Insecurity in Afghanistan

      Paloma González y Gómez del Miño, José Miguel Calvillo Cisneros

      Abstract

      Afghanistan continues to be the center of opium production in the whole world. The policies of eradication of crops undertaken from the beginning of international intervention have not delivered the expected results. The international dependency and the economic and institutional weakness of this country have been aggravated by the rise of a narco-economy that causes insecurity, poverty, corruption, and criminality. The multidimensional character that entails the production and distribution of opium comes down to a social, political, and economic issue. Opium poppy production is one of the factors directly influencing the stability of Afghanistan. This chapter tackles the evolution of opium and its connection with security and development and the lack of capacity to reduce production, distribution, and sales since the intervention of the United States. An alternative could lie in a model based on legalization, but it runs up against three main obstacles: legal, political, and social.

5. Social and Economic Development

   1. Frontmatter

   2. Chapter 11. The Afghanistan 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development: A Missed Opportunity

      Panagiota Kouri

      Abstract

      This chapter examines in detail those policies approved by the previous Afghan government to implement the Objectives of Sustainable Development which are on the Agenda 2030 of the United Nations. Obviously, the change of regime froze all those policies. However, the problems are still there and they will have to be faced eventually. For this reason, an analysis of the actions developed at the time is still very valuable, even though the latter were aborted.

   3. Chapter 12. Women’s Rights and Social Participation: Challenges, Outcomes, and Lost Opportunities

      Shapiry Hakami, Dina Mohseni

      Abstract

      This chapter explores the different strategies undertaken at the time in order to foster female participation in public life along with the powerful obstacles they had to face, and deals with the legislative changes that were introduced during the twenty years of reforms. The text shows how a minority of urban middle-class women managed to access relevant positions but also highlights the contrast between this minority’s situation and that of the broad majority submitted to the same traditional patriarchal structures. This contribution proves the ongoing reversion of most of these achievements and the need to think of new scenarios and strategies.

   4. Chapter 13. Afghanistan Health Status and Future Strategies

      Anwar Torabi

      Abstract

      This chapter provides us with an enlightening analysis about the Afghan health system before the arrival of the Taliban. The analysis invites us to reflect on all the local and under-exploited potentialities as has happened with traditional medicine, the most accessible for the poor population that has had no access to insufficient modern resources. Regarding this question, Afghanistan can learn a great deal from the experience of countries like India for the promotion of its traditional medical lore.

   5. Chapter 14. The Capacity of Afghanistan Economy, Agriculture Sector, and Essential Future Contrivances

      Mohammad Bashir Doudiyal

      Abstract

      This chapter points out one of the great dilemmas of any process of national construction. In a backward agricultural country like Afghanistan, the fact of having fostered a local agrarian development in order to progressively strengthen the national economy would have been something very reasonable. This could have been expanded the social basis of the regime. However, it was decided to prioritize the macroeconomic aspects of the development and this fact may help us to understand much of what happened.

   6. Chapter 15. Benefits of Interregional Cooperation and Regional Development

      Mohammad Bashir Doudiyal

      Abstract

      This chapter tackles the role of interregional cooperation in the development of the region by exposing how Afghanistan has under-exploited several of its potentialities such as that of being able to operate as a bridge between various regions like India, Iran, and Central Asia, and most notably as a transit point for the energy flows which are crucial for the economic development of the whole region. All these potentialities, not very well used so far, could contribute to the social and economic development of the country in the future.

   7. Chapter 16. Regional Interdependence of Afghanistan Economy

      Davoud Mahmoudinia, Asefa Estanezahi

      Abstract

      International relations are of the utmost importance for any given country and especially in their immediate region whereby adopting the right policies one can step forward toward domestic, regional, and global development. As Afghanistan is a country with untapped potential, it has always been at the center of attention of regional and international actors. Even though, the country of Afghanistan is gradually developing its economy, still more needs to be done, in terms of developmental work, for the country to be an important factor in the political-economic affairs in the region. Thus, in this study, we examine Afghanistan’s role in Central Asia to clarify its role in terms of trade relations and specific areas of investment. This chapter argues that the dependence of Afghanistan on regional markets, with Iran being one of its largest trading partners in the region, strengthening these relationships will boost both countries. Thus, Afghanistan must take serious actions in the field of self-sufficiency in order to have a better role in the region by investing in the commercial sector.

6. Geopolitics and Future

   1. Frontmatter

   2. Chapter 17. The Afghan War and Its Expectations of Peace

      Najib Abu-Warda

      Abstract

      This chapter provides a useful reconstruction of the process of international intervention by revealing its huge internal weakness from the beginning. After a draft explanation of the history of the country, it analyzes the endless crisis initiated four decades ago with the pro-Soviet coup d’état and the subsequent military intervention by the USSR. And this is followed by the reasons for the Mujahidin’s failure and the rise of the Taliban, followed by the failure of the process in 2001, which is detailed and analyzed. Finally, the agreements of 2020 were the basis for the US withdrawal and the return of the Taliban. In sum, there is a cycle of failures from which the country seems unable to exit.

   3. Chapter 18. Afghanistan in the Strategic Relationship Between India and Iran

      Naqibullah Saqib Khalilzoy

      Abstract

      This chapter analyzes the role of Afghanistan in the relations between India and Iran. By means of this triangular relationship, this chapter shows how both countries share vital interests regarding Afghanistan such as its promotion as a transit point toward Central Asia and the need of curbing the violent Sunni extremism. Both States made relevant investments in the country before the return of the Taliban with the aim of strengthening its influence there. In the case of India, its effort to counteract the predicament of Pakistan is also fundamental. This scenario has changed radically since August 2021, and there is no evidence about the future tendencies.

   4. Chapter 19. Iran and Afghanistan: A Shared Story

      Federico Aznar Fernández-Montesinos

      Abstract

      This chapter provides an interesting analysis of the historical implication of Iran in the Afghan issues and the role of this same implication within the framework of the complex foreign policy of the Islamic Republic. To this end, a comprehensive itinerary throughout the history of Iran is undertaken along with an analysis of the nature of its current revolutionary regime. It highlights the depth of the dilemma that forces its rulers to combine loyalty to their Islamist project with a strong realism and that is aimed at turning the country into a regional power with an increasing influence. These circumstances help to better understand the complexity of the Iranian policies on Afghanistan.

   5. Chapter 20. Iran’s Foreign Policy Toward Afghanistan

      Farid Muttaqi

      Abstract

      This chapter analyzes in more detail the intense implication of Iran in the economy of Afghanistan, especially in its Eastern part. Iran has a much greater development than Afghanistan, and with a very active foreign policy, a key element of which is the exercise of an intense cultural and economic influence upon its neighbors. Obviously, the fact that Persian is the second most important language of the country and the most important in cultural terms along with the presence of a large minority Shiite favors the development of that influence.

   6. Chapter 21. China and Afghanistan Relations: Between Suspicion and Pragmatism

      Xulio Ríos Paredes

      Abstract

      China renews its historical prominence in the present and future of Afghanistan. After the retreat of the international forces led by the United States, Beijing intensified its projection over the neighboring country by trying to adjust the security requirements and its strategic and development interests. Also, the Western decline serves as its argument in order to initial its rejection to foreign interventionism, reassert the U.S. decline, strengthen its regional position, and send a message to Taiwan. The Taliban’s commitment regarding Chinese investments and its non-interference in Xinjiang’s issue appears to be the most significant suspicions that threaten this bilateral relationship.

   7. Chapter 22. The Inextricable and Long Braid of the Durand Line

      Pau Miranda

      Abstract

      This chapter revisits the complex question of Pakistani-Afghan relations. The relations between both states have been determined by the territorial claims about the ethnically Pashtun territories and the obvious power unbalance in favor of Pakistan. The latter has tried to exert a profound influence on its Afghan neighbor. This influence has also functioned as a key instrument in the contest with India. The role of Pakistan in the recent Taliban victory is no more than the last episode of this state policy.

   8. Chapter 23. Conclusions

      Francisco José Berenguer López, Juan Ignacio Castien Maestro

      Abstract

      The final conclusions seek to offer a first summary. There are important lessons to be learned: the need of a strong local economic base required by any process of national construction in order to overcome the everlasting rentism and to provide real and sustainable improvements to the population with respect to their standards of living, as well as the impossibility to build nothing solid without recreating a legitimacy on the basis of collective consensus, which necessarily requires solid ties with the inherited traditions.

7. Backmatter