The Future of Local Self-Government

Table of Contents

1. Frontmatter

2. Chapter 1. The Essence and Transformation of Local Self-Government in Western Europe

   Sabine Kuhlmann, Ellen Wayenberg, Tomas Bergström, Jochen Franzke

   Abstract

   All over Europe, cities and municipalities face new and numerous challenges to uphold their unique self-governing role in society. This intriguing reality underscores this volume’s ambition of brightening the future of local self-government. After further elaborating on this relevant background and the approach taken, the first chapter introduces three main dimensions of analysis. They are key to the volume’s subsequent parts on the essence of local government’s autonomy, its transformations in the light of digitalisation, marketisation and amalgamation and, finally, its changing intergovernmental relations concerning supervision and subnational policy-making. This volume covers eight countries, spread over Europe. And so, this introductory chapter ends with highlighting main features of the different local government systems involved.

3. The Essence of Local Self-Government

   1. Frontmatter

   2. Chapter 2. The Future of Local Democracy: A Somewhat Dystopian View

      Tomas Bergström

      Abstract

      Tomas Bergström discusses, with examples mainly from Sweden, the future of party-based local democracy. Could local democratic systems change as conditions change and remain vigorous? Long-term trends present a rather dystopian picture that seems to result in reduced discretion and depoliticisation. Changes that has taken place like globalisation, marketisation, the impact of social media and new roles for courts challenge local politicians’ chances of governing local matters. Decisions are taken at other levels, by other actors than elected politicians or in complex networks involving a number of partners and stakeholders. Historically local governments have been able to adjust to new conditions. Whether this is the case also now remains to be seen.

   3. Chapter 3. Beyond Charter and Index: Reassessing Local Autonomy

      Jochen Franzke, Linze Schaap

      Abstract

      The Chapter examines the concept of local autonomy in modern European states by analysing theoretical approaches. The classical, deductive approach defines local autonomy mostly through legal, economic and financial conditions, especially by formal structures. This proves to be too weak to define the internal strength of local authorities and their real political-administrative power. A more multidimensional definition of autonomy, including indicators as importance, capacity, as well as discretion and democracy at local level is needed. The authors utilise the indicators, used by the Local Autonomy Index (LAI) developed by Ladner et al. and the European Charter of Local Self-Government to find out what is still missing. The contribution redounds to stimulate the scientific debate on local autonomy in Europe. Until the concept of local autonomy will fit for all European states with extremely differentiated local authorities, the research in this field remains a conceptual and heuristic endeavour. Especially, because local government and democracy are until now territory-based, whereas the reality is one of multilevel and cross-border governance.

   4. Chapter 4. Redefining Local Self-Government: Finnish Municipalities Seeking Their Essence

      Hanna Vakkala, Anni Jäntti, Lotta-Maria Sinervo

      Abstract

      Finnish municipalities have strived to manage an extensive number of statutory tasks with insufficient financial resources. Local government reforms have followed the politics of bigger scales, which is feared to cause problems in implementing the principles of locality and subsidiarity. This chapter aims to discuss what is happening to local self-government in Finland in the context of recent reforms. We reflect on the municipalities’ struggle with the concept of local self-governance and the contents of the European Charter of local self-government. The chapter builds on knowledge based on the previous literature and recent studies. Strengthening local autonomy and supporting municipalities’ financial resources would require loosening regulation at the central government level, while at the local level municipalities need to seek their essence and reinvent themselves.

   5. Chapter 5. Local Autonomy in the Nordic Countries: Between a Rock and a Hard Place

      Pekka Kettunen

      Abstract

      The autonomy of local governments in the Nordic countries is ranked high in comparative indexes. However, the Nordic welfare state, based on unity, and standardised services, seems to represent the contrary. Are Nordic local governments so autonomous after all? Although having a constitutional guarantee of autonomy, local governments in Denmark, Finland, Norway and Sweden have to constantly redefine the limits of autonomy. The chapter examines the constraints to local autonomy, including heavily regulated services to upscaling and, a pressure on small municipalities to provide the services. It makes recommendations for local autonomy in the Nordic countries to define itself within the welfare state framework.

   6. Chapter 6. Local Self-Government and the Choice for Local Governance Arrangements in Nine Swiss Municipal Tasks

      Nicolas Keuffer

      Abstract

      After a discussion of local self-government and its measurement for Switzerland, this chapter adopts a sectorial perspective, considering the decision-making competencies in nine tasks perceived by municipal actors. It shows that because of the increasing complexity of tasks, the cantonal reforms of functional allocation and the rise of federal and cantonal regulations, the degree of local self-government has generally decreased in recent decades, and that more and more municipalities are choosing governance arrangements. Furthermore, logistic regressions reveal that a lower degree of perceived political discretion leads to service delivery under a governance mode instead of in-house delivery by the municipality. These results question the understanding of local self-government as a territorially defined concept, since governance schemes exceed both territorial and representativeness scopes of local government.

   7. Chapter 7. Chasing the Creative Class: What Works, and What Doesn’t? Recruitment Strategies in Norwegian Local Government

      Harald Baldersheim

      Abstract

      What are (the most) effective strategies for recruiting staff to key positions in local government? Are the features of the work place or the features of the location of the work place the decisive factors? Classical Human Relations Management theories emphasise the former whereas the theory of the creative class along with scenescape theory highlights the latter. The theories are tested by drawing on a survey of middle managers in local government in Norway and what they have found to work (and not to work) in their respective municipalities when seeking to fill vacancies in their departments. The findings indicate that attractive features of the work place are more important than lively communities or natural scenery for drawing high-calibre candidates to local government positions.

4. Challenges and Transformations: Digitalisation, Marketisation, Amalgamation

   1. Frontmatter

   2. Chapter 8. The Digitalisation of Local Public Services. Evidence from the German Case

      Sabine Kuhlmann, Jörg Bogumil

      Abstract

      The digital transformation of the local public sector is an important step towards making local service delivery more citizen-centred and user-oriented. The state of digitalisation in public administration in Germany is, however, well behind the far-reaching hopes associated with this modernisation theme. This chapter will explore the question as to what extent digital tools have been introduced in German local governments, more specifically in local one-stop shops (Bürgerämter), which hurdles local actors face when coping with the digital transformation, and which tools impact on citizens and local employees as well as have unintended effects and dysfunctionalities so far. A comprehensive and standardised survey amongst mayors and heads of staff councils in German municipalities as well as citizens and employees’ surveys and case studies will form the empirical basis of this chapter.

   3. Chapter 9. Challenges of Digital Service Provision for Local Governments from the Citizens’ View: Comparing Citizens’ Expectations and Their Experiences of Digital Service Provision

      Moritz Heuberger, Christian Schwab

      Abstract

      The digital transformation of local public administrations’ service delivery is analysed from the citizens’ perspective, comparing their expectations, actual use and satisfaction. Combining several datasets from the case of German local government for secondary analysis, the results show that the expectations are much higher than the actual availability of e-services. In particular the younger and higher educated citizens show greater levels of disappointment when using these services, being more open to using e-services. While the older users are quite satisfied with what they get, the younger generation are mostly highly unsatisfied and frustrated with the available e-services. For a future outlook, this topic should be prioritised much more, especially with the demographic change and the increase of high expectations.

   4. Chapter 10. The Resistance Threshold to the Amalgamation of Jurisdictions: MP’s Attitudes About Budget Control and Social Identification in the Swiss Cantons

      Nils Soguel, Manon Jaquerod

      Abstract

      Over time, territorial boundaries have become increasingly incongruent with functional public activities. To overcome the exiguity of the territory and take advantage of economies of scale, governments often engage in partnerships across jurisdictions to provide public services. Budgets are then earmarked to finance these joint ventures, eroding independent control over finances. Amalgamation has been one response to recover this lost control. However, locals tend to be reluctant to see their community merge with other communities. Based on a survey conducted among the members of parliament in two Swiss cantons, this exploratory study locates what we call the ‘resistance threshold’ to amalgamation. We define this ‘resistance threshold’ as the share of the budget earmarked to finance joint ventures above which the decision-maker considers amalgamation a viable solution to recover budget control, even if that merger might erode social identification.

   5. Chapter 11. County Size and County Council Mandate: Decreasing Motivation Due to Longer Distances?

      Svenja Ems, Henrik Nürnberger

      Abstract

      Potential effects of county size on the capacity of local representatives to exercise their mandate have been repeatedly discussed in relation to (planned) territorial reforms in Germany. This article investigates whether council members living far away from the county town assess the exercise of their office differently than those living relatively closer to the county center. An unpublished survey among county council members of the county Mecklenburgische Seenplatte from 2014 as well as an extended analysis of a study by the Free State of Saxony from 2016 serve as the empirical foundation for this study. The analysis shows that the answers of council representatives from the county Mecklenburgische Seenplatte do include a certain “territorial factor,” while no correlation can be identified in Saxony.

   6. Chapter 12. Where Is Municipal Marketisation Heading? Experiences from England and Scandinavia

      Andrej Christian Lindholst, Ylva Norén Bretzer, Nicola Dempsey, Merethe Dotterud Leiren, Morten Balle Hansen

      Abstract

      Negative experiences, newer reform trends and local circumstances have challenged the reform doctrines of the New Public Management (NPM) and raised the question of whether reforms have entered a post-NPM era. We explore this question in a comparison of experiences with marketisation—a key doctrine in the NPM—within local park and road services in England, Sweden, Denmark and Norway. The comparison draws upon survey data collected from mid-level managers in 2014–16. We conclude that although marketisation is widespread it is not dominant. Also, the practices of marketisation are partly transformed by newer reform trends. In perspective, we find that marketisation is an evolving practice, which trajectories depend on local contextual circumstances and adaption of newer reform ideas.

5. Changing Intergovernmental Relations: Supervision and Subnational Policy-making

   1. Frontmatter

   2. Chapter 13. Decentralisation and Reconfiguration of Multilevel Research Policy: The Case of Sweden

      Bo Persson, Fumi Kitagawa

      Abstract

      Research policy in many countries has primarily been the business of the central state and has not been captured clearly within the scope of the local government. This chapter aims to better conceptualise the decentralisation of research policy from a multilevel governance perspective. Given the dearth of empirical analyses of such processes over time, the chapter focuses on a case of Sweden, examining changes between the central and local governments in power and resources. Overall, decentralisation of research policy can partly be seen as a bi-effect of decentralisation of welfare, higher education and regional development policies. It is argued that the role of local governments in Swedish research policy is primarily to function as complementary partners to the central state, rather than as independent policy-makers.

   3. Chapter 14. The Impact of Local Autonomy on Land-Use Planning: A Qualitative Comparative Analysis of Two Swiss Municipalities

      Jacopo Klaus

      Abstract

      Following the entry into force of more stringent federal provisions, Swiss regions and municipalities must implement antisprawl strategies. This contextual aspect provides the opportunity to discuss the impact of regional-local relations and of local autonomy on land-use planning. Competing views emerge from the literature: local autonomy is seen either as a source of resistance to supra-local regulation or as a driver of innovative solutions. To discuss these views, two municipal cases are compared. The results show that both levels of government have a role to play: while the task of managing the building zones is currently being centralized from the municipal to the regional level, the conservation of the quality of the urban environment should be recognized as a crucial municipal task.

   4. Chapter 15. City-Regional Governance in Flanders: The Potential of Mobility Regions as a Critical Juncture

      Pieterjan Schraepen, Filip De Rynck, Joris Voets

      Abstract

      This chapter explores the potential of functional administrative reforms as a basis for city-regional governance. An analysis of the case of Flanders, a strong regional government which is currently developing new territorial policy approaches, is presented. We discuss the recent administrative reform that has led to the creation of so-called mobility regions and raise the question to what extent this reform breaks with the existing politico-administrative constellation in Flanders. Our findings suggest that the design of the mobility regions contains elements that could be described as critical junctures in the Flemish institutional history. Nevertheless, the reform programme also does not question some of the core issues of the current politico-administrative system, which may strongly impact the institutional outcomes of this new governance arrangement.

   5. Chapter 16. Strategic Policy Planning at the Local Level: A Flemish Performance Starring Regional Government

      Ellen Wayenberg

      Abstract

      This chapter illustrates how intergovernmental fusion challenges local government reform in Flanders. In this northern part of Belgium, regional and local governments are closely interwoven. For decades, this fusion has put the Flemish government in a leading role as far as local strategic policy planning is concerned. Since the 1990s, field administrations have steered their local counterparts to very divergent planning practices as a prerequisite for granting state money to various local policy branches. But this sectorial subsidisation caused so-called planning burden for local governments that hindered them from strategically planning in a holistic manner. The Flemish government recently endeavoured to coordinate its intergovernmental steering practice in ten policy fields. Drawing upon empirical data acquired by document analyses and interviews in these fields, this chapter aims at finding out if the regional field administrations have now streamlined and also limited their top-down steering to support the local reform towards holistic planning. At first sight, our analysis pointed to goodwill on their part to support the reform. However, a closer look revealed that strong path dependency towards their own historic-institutional logic clearly ruled in case of conflict. If possible, field administrations prefer to hang on to their way of steering and thus keep on playing a starring role in local strategic planning.

   6. Chapter 17. State Supervision of Local Budgets: From Forbearance to No Concession

      Christian Person, René Geissler

      Abstract

      To guarantee fiscal sustainability of municipalities, all countries establish fiscal regulations and supervision. However, there is no guarantee that such regulation will be effective as the German state North Rhine-Westphalia shows. For decades, fiscal supervision suffered due to weak rules and inadequate implementation. In 2011, the state changed its supervisory system in favour of stricter rules. This chapter identifies causes for the persistence of an obviously failing system and reasons for its transformation. Persistence refers to political considerations and excessive demands in practice. The institutional change was caused by the global financial crisis making the old system unworkable and changing the actors’ mindsets. The state reacted by strengthening rules and their implementation simultaneously. Despite positive fiscal effects, the reform had negative impacts on local autonomy.

   7. Chapter 18. New Ways of Limiting Local Government Debt: An Empirical Assessment of the German Case

      Steffen Zabler

      Abstract

      Severe fiscal pressure experienced by some German municipalities has led to a shift in the way municipalities are controlled by the responsible state governments. Instead of purely relying on a system of approving budgets and borrowing, some states have established debt relief programmes which combine grants and sanctions, or even sent austerity commissioners who take over responsibilities of councils and mayors. Whether these are deemed proportionate and legitimate interventions into the constitutionally guaranteed administrative autonomy of the local level depends heavily on their success in limiting local government debt. Based on an innovative synthetic control approach, this paper undertakes an empirical assessment of a recent debt relief programme in North Rhine-Westphalia and the deployment of an austerity commissioner, revealing that both instruments to some degree positively impacted upon local government debt, as compared to non-intervention. Nevertheless, it finds the effect is limited in substantial terms.

   8. Chapter 19. Reforms of School Supervision in the German Länder: Converging School Supervision Structures?

      Benoît Paul Dumas

      Abstract

      While school supervision structures in the German Länder were extensively reformed during the last decades, systematic analyses of these reforms are missing. This chapter contributes to this research gap by providing an overview of the implemented reforms of school supervision structures in the German Länder. The effects of these reforms are analysed in order to answer the question of whether a convergence of school supervision systems is a result of these reforms. In a first step, a distinction is made to identify system-changing reforms. Although a decrease of the number or a concentration on one school supervision system is not a result of the analysis, it is argued that there is a convergence of school supervision structures, as a clear trend against school supervision systems with lower school supervisory boards can be observed.

6. Future Outlook and Scenarios

   1. Frontmatter

   2. Chapter 20. Future Outlook and Scenarios

      Tomas Bergström, Jochen Franzke, Sabine Kuhlmann, Ellen Wayenberg

      Abstract

      Where is local self-government heading in the future? Among trends identified is firstly an intensification of multilevel, intermunicipal, and cross-border governance. In the future even more of cooperation and coordination among different political and administrative levels will be required. Territorial boundaries have become increasingly incongruent with functional public activities. Secondly, the innovative potential of introducing markets as templates for organisational reform has reached its end. Future reforms will most likely try to adapt market reforms to local public contexts, or even reverse the development. Finally, a tightening of state steering and an increased dependence on state funding to uphold local services is expected. Waves of amalgamations might slow down this process but they will not make financial problems disappear completely.

7. Backmatter