Top

previous chapter Introduction: From Chronobiology to Lighting

next chapter Evaluation of Artificial Light with Respect to ...

Hint

Swipe to navigate through the chapters of this book

2019 | OriginalPaper | Chapter

2. The Human Circadian System

Read first chapter

Author: Maurizio Rossi

Publisher: Springer International Publishing

Published in: Circadian Lighting Design in the LED Era

» Get access to the full-text

Abstract

This chapter analyses the human circadian system in detail, with particular attention to the effects of light. From a lighting design-oriented perspective, it presents the results of the main research, applied to lighting or developed in the physiological medical field, with reference to the non-image forming (NIF) effects produced by artificial lighting on the human organism. These effects primarily affect the regulation of melatonin production, which is the main marker of the state of the human circadian cycle, but also the central nervous system, with effects on neurophysiological parameters such as cognitive performance, attention level and alertness level. The existing positive and negative relationships between light and some diseases such as seasonal depression, Alzheimer’s syndrome, sleep disorders and premature birth are also examined. Furthermore, this chapter provides a general description of the functioning of the human circadian system, the factors that regulate it and its effects on the organism. Finally, it analyses the possible relationships between the circadian cycle and the modern environment, with particular reference to the human interior spaces.

Please log in to get access to this content

To get access to this content you need the following product:

Springer Professional "Wirtschaft+Technik"

Online-Abonnement

Mit Springer Professional "Wirtschaft+Technik" erhalten Sie Zugriff auf:

über 69.000 Bücher
über 500 Zeitschriften

aus folgenden Fachgebieten:

Automobil + Motoren
Bauwesen + Immobilien
Business IT + Informatik
Elektrotechnik + Elektronik
Energie + Umwelt
Finance + Banking
Management + Führung
Marketing + Vertrieb
Maschinenbau + Werkstoffe
Versicherung + Risiko

Testen Sie jetzt 30 Tage kostenlos.

inform now

Springer Professional "Technik"

Online-Abonnement

Mit Springer Professional "Technik" erhalten Sie Zugriff auf:

über 50.000 Bücher
über 380 Zeitschriften

aus folgenden Fachgebieten:

Automobil + Motoren
Bauwesen + Immobilien
Business IT + Informatik
Elektrotechnik + Elektronik
Energie + Umwelt
Maschinenbau + Werkstoffe

Testen Sie jetzt 30 Tage kostenlos.

inform now

Springer Professional "Wirtschaft"

Online-Abonnement

Mit Springer Professional "Wirtschaft" erhalten Sie Zugriff auf:

über 58.000 Bücher
über 300 Zeitschriften

aus folgenden Fachgebieten:

Bauwesen + Immobilien
Business IT + Informatik
Finance + Banking
Management + Führung
Marketing + Vertrieb
Versicherung + Risiko

Testen Sie jetzt 30 Tage kostenlos.

inform now

Adler, J. S., et al. (1992). Peripheral vision suppression of melatonin. Journal of Pineal Research, 12(2), 49–52. CrossRef

Badia, P., et al. (1991). Bright light effects on body temperature, alertness, EEG and behaviour. Physiology & Behavior, 50(3), 583–588. CrossRef

Barkmann, C., Wessolowski, N., & Schulte-Markwort, M. (2012). Applicability and efficacy of variable light in schools. Physiology & Behavior, 105(3), 621–627. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.physbeh.2011.09.020. CrossRef

Bellia, L., Pedace, A., & Fragliasso, F. (2015). Indoor lighting quality: Effects of different wall colours. Lighting Research and Technology, 49. https://doi.org/10.1177/1477153515594654. CrossRef

Berman, S., et al. (2006). A comparison of traditional and high colour temperature lighting on the near acuity of elementary school children. Lighting Research & Technology, 38(1), 41–49. https://doi.org/10.1191/1365782806li155oa. MathSciNetCrossRef

Berson, D. M., Dunn, F. A., & Takao, M. (2002). Phototransduction by retinal ganglion cells that set the circadian clock. Science, 295(5557), 1070–1073. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1067262. CrossRef

Blencowe, H., et al. (2012). National, regional, and worldwide estimates of pre-term birth rates in the year 2010 with time trends since 1990 for selected countries: A systematic analysis and implications. Lancet (London, England), 379(9832), 2162–2172. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(12)60820-4. CrossRef

Boekema, P. J., et al. (1999). Coffee and gastrointestinal function: Facts and fiction. A review. Scandinavian Journal of Gastroenterology (Supplement 230), 35–39

Boivin, D. B., et al. (1996). Dose-response relationships for resetting of human circadian clock by light. Nature, 379(6565), 540–542. https://doi.org/10.1038/379540a0. CrossRef

Bonsall, D. R., & Harrington, M. E. (2013). Circadian rhythm disruption in chronic fatigue syndrome. Advances in Neuroimmune Biology, 4(4), 265–274. https://doi.org/10.3233/NIB-130074. CrossRef

Boulos, Z., et al. (1995). Light treatment for sleep disorders: Consensus report: VII. Jet lag. Journal of Biological Rhythms, 10(2), 167–176. https://doi.org/10.1177/074873049501000209. CrossRef

Brainard, G. C., et al. (1988). Dose-response relationship between light irradiance and the suppression of plasma melatonin in human volunteers. Brain Research, 454(1), 212–218. https://doi.org/10.1016/0006-8993(88)90820-7. CrossRef

Brainard, G. C., et al. (2001a). Action spectrum for melatonin regulation in humans: Evidence for a novel circadian photoreceptor. Journal of Neuroscience, 21(16), 6405–6412. https://doi.org/10.1523/JNEUROSCI.21-16-06405.2001. CrossRef

Brainard, G. C., et al. (2001b). Human melatonin regulation is not mediated by the three cone photopic visual system. Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism, 86(1), 433–436. https://doi.org/10.1210/jcem.86.1.7277. CrossRef

Brandon, D. H., Holditch-Davis, D., & Belyea, M. (2002). Preterm infants born at less than 31 weeks’ gestation have improved growth in cycled light compared with continuous near darkness. The Journal of Pediatrics, 140(2), 192–199. https://doi.org/10.1067/mpd.2002.121932. CrossRef

Burgess, H. J., & Eastman, C. I. (2005). The dim light melatonin onset following fixed and free sleep schedules. Journal of Sleep Research, 14(3), 229–237. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2869.2005.00470.x. CrossRef

Cajochen, C. (2007). Alerting effects of light. Sleep Medicine Reviews, 11(6), 453–464. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.smrv.2007.07.009. CrossRef

Cajochen, C., et al. (2005). High sensitivity of human melatonin, alertness, thermoregulation, and heart rate to short wavelength light. The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism, 90(3), 1311–1316. https://doi.org/10.1210/jc.2004-0957. CrossRef

Cedernaes, J., Schiöth, H. B., & Benedict, C. (2015). Determinants of shortened, disrupted, and mistimed sleep and associated metabolic health consequences in healthy humans. Diabetes, 64(4), 1073–1080. https://doi.org/10.2337/db14-1475. CrossRef

Chellappa, S. L., Gordijn, M. C. M., & Cajochen, C. (2011). Can light make us bright? Effects of light on cognition and sleep’. Progress in Brain Research, 190, 119–133. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-444-53817-8.00007-4. CrossRef

Choi, K., & Suk, H.-J. (2016). Dynamic lighting system for the learning environment: Performance of elementary students. Optics Express, 24(10), A907–A916. https://doi.org/10.1364/OE.24.00A907. CrossRef

Christoffersson, G., et al. (2014). Acute sleep deprivation in healthy young men: Impact on population diversity and function of circulating neutrophils. Brain, Behavior, and Immunity, 41, 162–172. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bbi.2014.05.010. CrossRef

CIE TN 003:2015 Report on the First International Workshop on Circadian and Neurophysiological Photometry, 2013. Available at: http://www.cie.co.at/publications/report-first-international-workshop-circadian-and-neurophysiological-photometry-2013. Accessed February 20, 2017.

Cowan, N. (2008). What are the differences between long-term, short-term, and working memory? In W. S. Sossin, et al. (Eds.), Progress in brain research. Elsevier (Essence of Memory), pp. 323–338. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0079-6123(07)00020-9.

Crowley, S. J., et al. (2006). Estimating dim light melatonin onset (DLMO) phase in adolescents using summer or school-year sleep/wake schedules. Sleep, 29(12), 1632–1641. CrossRef

Czeisler, C. A., et al. (1995). Suppression of melatonin secretion in some blind patients by exposure to bright light. New England Journal of Medicine, 332(1), 6–11. https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJM199501053320102. CrossRef

Czeisler, C. A., et al. (1999). Stability, precision, and near-24-hour period of the human circadian pacemaker. Science (New York, N.Y.), 284(5423), 2177–2181. CrossRef

Dijk, D.-J., & Archer, S. N. (2009). Light, sleep, and circadian rhythms: Together again. PLoS Biology, 7(6), e1000145. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pbio.1000145. CrossRef

Duffy, J. F., & Czeisler, C. A. (2009). Effect of light on human circadian physiology. Sleep Medicine Clinics, 4(2), 165–177. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsmc.2009.01.004. CrossRef

Eastman, C., Martin, S. K., & Hébert, M. (2000). Failure of extraocular light to facilitate circadian rhythm reentrainment in humans. Chronobiology International, 17, 807–26. https://doi.org/10.1081/cbi-100102116. CrossRef

Engle-Friedman, M. (2014). The effects of sleep loss on capacity and effort. Sleep Science, 7(4), 213–224. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.slsci.2014.11.001. CrossRef

Engwall, M., et al. (2014). Let there be light and darkness: Findings from a prestudy concerning cycled light in the intensive care unit environment. Critical Care Nursing Quarterly, 37(3), 273–298. https://doi.org/10.1097/CNQ.0000000000000031. CrossRef

Evans, J. A., et al. (2013). Health consequences of circadian disruption in humans and animal models. Progress in Molecular Biology and Translational Science, 119, 283–323. CrossRef

Figueiro, M. G., Lesniak, N. Z., & Rea, M. S. (2011). Implications of controlled short-wavelength light exposure for sleep in older adults. BMC Research Notes, 4, 334. https://doi.org/10.1186/1756-0500-4-334. CrossRef

Figueiro, M. G. (2013). Why field measurements of circadian light exposure are important. Lighting Research & Technology, 45(1), 6. https://doi.org/10.1177/1477153512473709. CrossRef

Figueiro, M. G. (2015). Light therapy for better sleep. Sleep Review, 5. Available at: http://www.sleepreviewmag.com/2015/05/light-therapy-better-sleep/. Accessed March 14, 2018.

Figueiro, M. G., et al. (2014a). Tailored lighting intervention improves measures of sleep, depression, and agitation in persons with Alzheimer’s disease and related dementia living in long-term care facilities. Clinical Interventions in Aging, 9, 1527–1537. https://doi.org/10.2147/CIA.S68557. CrossRef

Figueiro, M. G., Plitnick, B., & Rea, M. S. (2014b). The effects of chronotype, sleep schedule and light/dark pattern exposures on circadian phase. Sleep Medicine, 15(12), 1554–1564. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sleep.2014.07.009. CrossRef

Figueiro, M. G. (2016). Delayed sleep phase disorder: Clinical perspective with a focus on light therapy. Nature and Science of Sleep, 8, 91–106. https://doi.org/10.2147/NSS.S85849. CrossRef

Freedman, M. S., et al. (1999). Regulation of mammalian circadian behaviour by non-rod, non-cone, ocular photoreceptors. Science, 284(5413), 502–504. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.284.5413.502. CrossRef

Gentile, N., et al. (2018). A field study of fluorescent and LED classroom lighting. Lighting Research & Technology, 50(4), 631–650. https://doi.org/10.1177/1477153516675911. CrossRef

Glass, P., et al. (1985). Effect of Bright light in the hospital nursery on the incidence of retinopathy of prematurity. New England Journal of Medicine, 313(7), 401–404. https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJM198508153130701. CrossRef

Glickman, G., et al. (2003). Inferior retinal light exposure is more effective than superior retinal exposure in suppressing melatonin in humans. Journal of Biological Rhythms, 18(1), 71–79. https://doi.org/10.1177/0748730402239678. CrossRef

Hattar, S., et al. (2002). Melanopsin-containing retinal ganglion cells: Architecture, projections, and intrinsic photosensitivity. Science, 295(5557), 1065–1070. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1069609. CrossRef

Heschong, L., Wright, R. L., & Okura, S. (2002). Daylighting impacts on human performance in school. Journal of the Illuminating Engineering Society, 31(2), 101–114. https://doi.org/10.1080/00994480.2002.10748396. CrossRef

Hubalek, S., Brink, M., & Schierz, C. (2010). Office workers’ daily exposure to light and its influence on sleep quality and mood. Lighting Research & Technology, 42(1), 33–50. https://doi.org/10.1177/1477153509355632. CrossRef

Huiberts, L. M., Smolders, K. C. H. J., & de Kort, Y. A. W. (2016). Non-image forming effects of illuminance level: Exploring parallel effects on physiological arousal and task performance. Physiology and Behavior, 164, 129–139. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.physbeh.2016.05.035. CrossRef

IALD. (2017). Joint position paper by LightingEurope and the International Association of Lighting Designers (IALD) on Human Centric Lighting (February 2017). Available at: https://www.iald.org/Advocacy/Publications. Accessed September 30, 2018.

Johansson, C., et al. (2001). Seasonal affective disorder and serotonin-related polymorphisms. Neurobiology of Disease, 8(2), 351–357. https://doi.org/10.1006/nbdi.2000.037. CrossRef

Joo, E. Y., et al. (2017). Timing of light exposure and activity in adults with delayed sleep-wake phase disorder. Sleep Medicine, 32, 259–265. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sleep.2016.09.009. CrossRef

Klein, D. C., Moore, R. Y., & Reppert, S. M. (Eds.). (1991). Suprachiasmatic nucleus: The mind’s clock (1st ed.). New York: Oxford University Press.

Küller, R., & Lindsten, C. (1992). Health and behavior of children in classrooms with and without windows. Journal of Environmental Psychology, 12(4), 305–317. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0272-4944(05)80079-9. CrossRef

Lack, L., & Wright, H. (1993). The effect of evening bright light in delaying the circadian rhythms and lengthening the sleep of early morning awakening insomniacs. Sleep, 16(5), 436–443. CrossRef

Lasko, T. A., Kripke, D. F., & Elliot, J. A. (1999). Melatonin suppression by illumination of upper and lower visual fields. Journal of Biological Rhythms, 14(2), 122–125. https://doi.org/10.1177/074873099129000506. CrossRef

Lavigne, G. J., et al. (2007). Genesis of sleep bruxism: Motor and autonomic-cardiac interactions. Archives of Oral Biology (Special Issue: International Mastication Symposium, Brisbane, June 2006), 52(4), 381–384. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.archoralbio.2006.11.017. CrossRef

LeGates, T. A., Fernandez, D. C., & Hattar, S. (2014). Light as a central modulator of circadian rhythms, sleep and affect. Nature Reviews Neuroscience, 15(7), 443–454. https://doi.org/10.1038/nrn3743. CrossRef

Lewy, A. J., et al. (1980). Light suppresses melatonin secretion in humans. Science, 210(4475), 1267–1269. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.7434030. CrossRef

Lewy, A. J., et al. (1982). Bright artificial light treatment of a manic-depressive patient with a seasonal mood cycle. The American Journal of Psychiatry, 139(11), 1496–1498. https://doi.org/10.1176/ajp.139.11.1496. CrossRef

Lindblom, N., et al. (2000). Bright light exposure of a large skin area does not affect melatonin or bilirubin levels in humans. Biological Psychiatry, 48(11), 1098–1104. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0006-3223(00)00905-7. CrossRef

Liu, L., et al. (2016). Global, regional, and national causes of under-5 mortality in 2000–15: An updated systematic analysis with implications for the Sustainable Development Goals. Lancet (London, England), 388(10063), 3027–3035. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(16)31593-8. CrossRef

Lockley, S. W., et al. (1998). Extraocular light exposure does not suppress plasma melatonin in humans. The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism, 83(9), 3369–3372. https://doi.org/10.1210/jcem.83.9.5244. CrossRef

Lockley, S. W., et al. (2006). Short-wavelength sensitivity for the direct effects of light on alertness. Vigilance, and the Waking Electroencephalogram in Humans Sleep, 29(2), 161–168. https://doi.org/10.1093/sleep/29.2.161. CrossRef

Lucas, R. J., et al. (2014). Measuring and using light in the melanopsin age. Trends in Neurosciences, 37(1), 1–9. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tins.2013.10.004. CrossRef

Magnusson, A., et al. (2000). Lack of seasonal mood change in the Icelandic population: Results of a cross-sectional study. The American journal of psychiatry, 157(2), 234–238. https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.ajp.157.2.234. CrossRef

Mahmud, A., & Feely, J. (2001). Acute effect of caffeine on arterial stiffness and aortic pressure waveform. Hypertension, 38(2), 227–231. https://doi.org/10.1161/01.HYP.38.2.227. CrossRef

Manfredini, D., et al. (2013). Epidemiology of bruxism in adults: A systematic review of the literature. Journal of Oral & Facial Pain and Headache, 27(2), 99–110. https://doi.org/10.11607/jop.921. CrossRef

McIntyre, I. M., et al. (1989). Quantal melatonin suppression by exposure to low intensity light in man. Life Sciences, 45(4), 327–332. https://doi.org/10.1016/0024-3205(89)90142-2. CrossRef

Mclntyre, I. M., et al. (1989). Human melatonin suppression by light is intensity dependent. Journal of Pineal Research, 6(2), 149–156. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1600-079X.1989.tb00412.x. CrossRef

Meesters, Y., et al. (2011). Low-intensity blue-enriched white light (750 lux) and standard bright light (10 000 lux) are equally effective in treating SAD. A random-ized controlled study. BMC Psychiatry, 11, 17. https://doi.org/10.1186/1471-244X-11-17. CrossRef

Meesters, Y., et al. (2016). The effects of low-intensity narrow-band blue-light treatment compared to bright white-light treatment in sub-syndromal seasonal affective disorder. BMC Psychiatry, 16. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12888-016-0729-5.

Miller, C. L., et al. (1995). The effects of cycled versus noncycled lighting on growth and development in preterm infants. Infant Behavior and Development, 18(1), 87–95. https://doi.org/10.1016/0163-6383(95)90010-1. CrossRef

Miyake, A., & Shah, P. (Eds). (1999). Models of working memory: Mechanisms of active maintenance and executive control. Cambridge University Press.

Montgomery, P., & Dennis, J. A. (2002). Bright light therapy for sleep problems in adults aged 60+. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews, 2. https://doi.org/10.1002/14651858.cd003403.

Morag, I., & Ohlsson, A. (2016). Cycled light in the intensive care unit for pre-term and low birth weight infants. The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews, 8, CD006982. https://doi.org/10.1002/14651858.cd006982.pub4.

Morin, L. P. (1994). The circadian visual system. Brain Research. Brain Research Reviews, 19(1), 102–127. CrossRef

Noguchi, H., & Sakaguchi, T. (1999). Effect of illuminance and colour temperature on lowering of physiological activity. Applied Human Science: Journal of Physiological Anthropology, 18(4), 117–123. CrossRef

Okamoto, Y., & Nakagawa, S. (2016). Effects of light wavelength on MEG ERD/ERS during a working memory task. International Journal of Psychophysi-ology, 104, 10–16. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijpsycho.2016.03.008. CrossRef

Parsons, M. J., et al. (2015). Social jetlag, obesity and metabolic disorder: Investigation in a cohort study. International Journal of Obesity (2005), 39(5), 842–848. https://doi.org/10.1038/ijo.2014.201. CrossRef

Perlow, M. J., et al. (1980). Photic regulation of the melatonin rhythm: Monkey and man are not the same. Brain Research, 182(1), 211–216. https://doi.org/10.1016/0006-8993(80)90848-3. CrossRef

Pévet, P., et al. (2002). The chronobiotic properties of melatonin. Cell and Tissue Research, 309(1), 183–191. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00441-002-0584-1. CrossRef

Philips. (2018). EnergyUp Energy light HF3420/03 Energy light. Available at: https://www.philips.co.uk/c-p/HF3420_03/energyup-energy-light Accessed June 10, 2018.

Phillips, M. L. (2009). Circadian rhythms: Of owls, larks and alarm clocks. Nature, 458(7235), 142–144. https://doi.org/10.1038/458142a. CrossRef

Pringsheim, T. (2002). Cluster headache: Evidence for a disorder of circadian rhythm and hypothalamic function. Canadian Journal of Neurological Sciences, 29(1), 33–40. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0317167100001694. CrossRef

Provencio, I., et al. (2000). A novel human opsin in the inner retina. Journal of Neuroscience, 20(2), 600–605. https://doi.org/10.1523/JNEUROSCI.20-02-00600.2000. CrossRef

Pulay, A. (2016). Examining student behavior under two correlated color temperature levels of lighting in an elementary classroom. Educational Planning, 23(3), 57–69.

Rapuri, P. B., et al. (2001). Caffeine intake increases the rate of bone loss in elderly women and interacts with vitamin D receptor genotypes. The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 74(5), 694–700. https://doi.org/10.1093/ajcn/74.5.694. CrossRef

Rautkylä, E., et al. (2010). Effects of correlated colour temperature and timing of light exposure on daytime alertness in lecture environments. Journal of Light & Visual Environment, 34(2), 59–68. https://doi.org/10.2150/jlve.34.59. CrossRef

Rea, M. S., Bullough, J. D., & Figueiro, M. G. (2001). Human melatonin suppression by light: A case for scotopic efficiency. Neuroscience Letters, 299(1), 45–48. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0304-3940(01)01512-9. CrossRef

Rea, M. S. (2007). Oltre la visione. In More than vision (1st edn, pp. 4–18). Recanati: iGuzzini - Editoriale Domus (ilibriGuzzini).

Rea, M. S., et al. (2012). Relationship of morning cortisol to circadian phase and rising time in young adults with delayed sleep times. International Journal of Endocrinology. https://doi.org/10.1155/2012/749460. CrossRef

Rea, M. S., & Figueiro, M. G. (2016). The NICU lighted environment. New-born and infant nursing reviews: NAINR, 16(4), 195–202. https://doi.org/10.1053/j.nainr.2016.09.009. CrossRef

Reiter, R. J. (1991). Pineal melatonin: Cell biology of its synthesis and of its physiological interactions. Endocrine Reviews, 12(2), 151–180. https://doi.org/10.1210/edrv-12-2-151. CrossRef

Reiter, R. J., et al. (2012). Obesity and metabolic syndrome: Association with chronodisruption, sleep deprivation, and melatonin suppression. Annals of Medicine, 44(6), 564–577. https://doi.org/10.3109/07853890.2011.586365. CrossRef

Revell, V. L., et al. (2006). Alerting effects of light are sensitive to very short wavelengths. Neuroscience Letters, 399(1–2), 96–100. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neulet.2006.01.032. CrossRef

Rosen, L. N., et al. (1990). Prevalence of seasonal affective disorder at four latitudes. Psychiatry Research, 31(2), 131–144. https://doi.org/10.1016/0165-1781(90)90116-M. CrossRef

Rosenthal, N. E., et al. (1987). Disturbances of appetite and weight regulation in seasonal affective disorder. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 499(1), 216–230. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1749-6632.1987.tb36213.x. CrossRef

Rosenthal, N. E., et al. (1990). Phase-shifting effects of bright morning light as treatment for delayed sleep phase syndrome. Sleep, 13(4), 354–361. https://doi.org/10.1093/sleep/13.4.354. CrossRef

Rosenthal, N. E. (1991). Plasma melatonin as a measure of the human clock. The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism, 73(2), 225–226. https://doi.org/10.1210/jcem-73-2-225. CrossRef

Rosenthal, N. E. (2006). Winter blues: Everything you need to know to beat seasonal affective disorder (4th ed.). New York: Guilford Press.

Roth, T. (2007). Insomnia: Definition, prevalence, etiology, and consequences. Journal of Clinical Sleep Medicine: JCSM: Official Publication of the American Academy of Sleep Medicine, 3(5 Suppl), S7–S10.

Sack, R. L., et al. (1992). Circadian rhythm abnormalities in totally blind people: Incidence and clinical significance. The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism, 75(1), 127–134. https://doi.org/10.1210/jcem.75.1.1619000. CrossRef

Salt, S., & Karmel, L. J. (1967). The windowless school. The Clearing House: A Journal of Educational Strategies, Issues and Ideas, 42(3), 176–178. https://doi.org/10.1080/00098655.1967.11477476. CrossRef

Shetty, S., et al. (2010). Bruxism: A literature review. Journal of Indian Prosthodontic Society, 10(3), 141–148. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13191-011-0041-5. CrossRef

Shilo, L., et al. (2002). The effects of coffee consumption on sleep and melatonin secretion. Sleep Medicine, 3(3), 271–273. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1389-9457(02)00015-1. CrossRef

Sleegers, P. J. C., et al. (2013). Lighting affects students’ concentration positively: Findings from three Dutch studies. Lighting Research & Technology, 45(2), 159–175. https://doi.org/10.1177/1477153512446099. CrossRef

Sloane, P. D., et al. (2007). High-intensity environmental light in dementia: Effect on sleep and activity. Journal of the American Geriatrics Society, 55(10), 1524–1533. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1532-5415.2007.01358.x. CrossRef

Sloane, P. D., Figueiro, M. G., & Cohen, L. (2008). Light as therapy for sleep disorders and depression in older adults. Clinical geriatrics, 16(3), 25–31.

Smith, A. (2002). Effects of caffeine on human behaviour. Food and Chemical Toxicology, 40(9), 1243–1255. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0278-6915(02)00096-0. CrossRef

Smith, J. S., et al. (2002). Illumination of upper and middle visual fields produces equivalent suppression of melatonin in older volunteers. Chronobiology Inter-national, 19(5), 883–891. CrossRef

Smolders, K. C. H. J., de Kort, Y. A. W., & Cluitmans, P. J. M. (2012). A higher illuminance induces alertness even during office hours: Findings on subjective measures, task performance and heart rate measures. Physiology & Behavior, 107(1), 7–16. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.physbeh.2012.04.028. CrossRef

Snel, J., & Lorist, M. M. (2011). Chapter 6—Effects of caffeine on sleep and cognition. In Van Dongen, H. P. A. & Kerkhof, G. A. (Eds.), Progress in brain research (pp. 105–117). Elsevier (Human Sleep and Cognition Part II). https://doi.org/10.1016/b978-0-444-53817-8.00006-2.

Souman, J. L., et al. (2018). Acute alerting effects of light: A systematic literature review. Behavioural Brain Research, 337, 228–239. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bbr.2017.09.016. CrossRef

Stevens, R. G., & Rea, M. S. (2001). Light in the built environment: Potential role of circadian disruption in endocrine disruption and breast cancer. Cancer Causes and Control, 12(3), 279–287. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1011237000609. CrossRef

Szelenberger, W., Niemcewicz, S., & DĄbrowska, A. J. (2005). Sleepwalking and night terrors: Psychopathological and psychophysiological correlates. International Review of Psychiatry, 17(4), 263–270. https://doi.org/10.1080/09540260500104573. CrossRef

Takahashi, J. S. (2017). Transcriptional architecture of the mammalian circadian clock. Nature Reviews Genetics, 18(3), 164–179. https://doi.org/10.1038/nrg.2016.150. CrossRef

te Kulve, M., et al. (2015). The influence of light on thermal responses. Acta Physiologica, 216(2), 163–185. https://doi.org/10.1111/apha.12552. CrossRef

Teixeira, L., et al. (2013). Exposure to bright light during evening class hours increases alertness among working college students. Sleep Medicine, 14(1), 91–97. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sleep.2012.08.017. CrossRef

Thapan, K., Arendt, J., & Skene, D. J. (2001). An action spectrum for melatonin suppression: Evidence for a novel non-rod, non-cone photoreceptor system in humans. Journal of Physiology, 535(1), 261–267. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-7793.2001.t01-1-00261.x. CrossRef

van Bommel, W., & van den Beld, G. (2004). Lighting for work: A review of visual and biological effects. Lighting Research & Technology, 36, 255–269. https://doi.org/10.1191/1365782804li122oa. CrossRef

van Oosterhout, W., et al. (2018). Chronotypes and circadian timing in migraine. Cephalalgia: An International Journal of Headache, 38(4), 617–625. https://doi.org/10.1177/0333102417698953. CrossRef

Van Someren, E. J., et al. (1997). Indirect bright light improves circadian rest-activity rhythm disturbances in demented patients. Biological Psychiatry, 41(9), 955–963. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0006-3223(97)89928-3. CrossRef

Veitch, J. A., & Newsham, G. R. (1998). Lighting quality and energy-efficiency effects on task performance, mood, health, satisfaction, and comfort. Journal of the Illuminating Engineering Society, 27(1), 107–129. https://doi.org/10.1080/00994480.1998.10748216. CrossRef

Versteeg, R. I., et al. (2016). Nutrition in the spotlight: Metabolic effects of environmental light. The Proceedings of the Nutrition Society, 75(4), 451–463. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0029665116000707. CrossRef

Watson, E. J., et al. (2016). Caffeine consumption and sleep quality in Australian adults. Nutrients, 8(8). https://doi.org/10.3390/nu8080479. CrossRef

WHO. (2015). Dementia Fact sheet N° 362. World Health Organization. Available at: https://web.archive.org/web/20150318030901/http://www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs362/en. Accessed March 15, 2018.

WHO. (2018). Preterm birth. World Health Organization. Available at: http://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/preterm-birth. Accessed June 11, 2018.

Wilhelm, I., et al. (2007). Is the cortisol awakening rise a response to awakening? Psychoneuroendocrinology, 32(4), 358–366. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psyneuen.2007.01.008. CrossRef

Winston, A. P., Hardwick, E., & Jaberi, N. (2005). Neuropsychiatric effects of caffeine. Advances in Psychiatric Treatment, 11(6), 432–439. https://doi.org/10.1192/apt.11.6.432. CrossRef

Wittmann, M., et al. (2006). Social jetlag: Misalignment of biological and social time. Chronobiology International, 23(1–2), 497–509. https://doi.org/10.1080/07420520500545979. CrossRef

Yadav, A., Verma, P., & Singh, S. (2017). Going beyond the limits: Effect of clock disruption on human health. Biological Rhythm Research, 48(5), 693–700. https://doi.org/10.1080/09291016.2017.1345428. CrossRef

Zaidi, F. H., et al. (2007). Short-wavelength light sensitivity of circadian, pupillary, and visual awareness in humans lacking an outer retina. Current Biology, 17(24), 2122–2128. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cub.2007.11.034l. CrossRef

Zeitzer, J. M., et al. (2000). Sensitivity of the human circadian pacemaker to nocturnal light: Melatonin phase resetting and suppression. The Journal of Physiology, 526(Pt 3), 695–702. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-7793.2000.00695.x. CrossRef

Title

The Human Circadian System

Book

Circadian Lighting Design in the LED Era

Print ISBN: 978-3-030-11086-4

Electronic ISBN: 978-3-030-11087-1

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-11087-1

DOI

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-11087-1_2

Author:

Maurizio Rossi

Publisher

Springer International Publishing

Sequence number

Chapter number

Chapter 2