The Illiberal Public Sphere
Media in Polarized Societies
- Open Access
- 2024
- Open Access
- Book
- Authors
- Václav Štětka
- Sabina Mihelj
- Publisher
- Springer Nature Switzerland
About this book
This open access book provides the first systematic analysis of the role of the media in the rise of illiberalism, based on an original theoretical framework and extensive empirical research in Eastern Europe – a region that serves as a key battleground in the global advance of illiberalism. Liberal democracies across the world are facing a range of challenges, from the growing influence of illiberal leaders and parties to deepening polarization and declining trust in political elites and mainstream media. Although these developments attracted significant scholarly attention, the factors that contribute to the spreading of illiberalism remain poorly understood, and the communication perspective on illiberalism is particularly underdeveloped.
Štětka and Mihelj address this gap by introducing the concept of the illiberal public sphere, identifying the key stages in its development, and explaining what makes illiberalism distinct from related phenomena such as populism. Their analysis reveals how and why the changing communication environment facilitates selective exposure to ideologically and politically homogeneous sources, fosters changes in normative assumptions that guide media trust, increases vulnerability to disinformation, and goes hand in hand with growing hostility to immigration and LGBTQ+ rights. The findings challenge widespread assumptions about digital platforms as key channels of illiberalism and suggest that their role shifts as the illiberal sphere progresses.
The arguments presented in this book have important implications for future research on challenges to liberal democracy, as well as for journalists, media regulators and other professionals committed to rebuilding media trust and containing the forces of polarization.
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Table of Contents
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Chapter 1. Introduction
- Open Access
Download PDF-versionThe chapter begins by acknowledging the decline of liberal democracy, highlighted by events such as Brexit and the election of Donald Trump. It delves into the role of media and communication technologies in this decline, emphasizing the importance of understanding the involvement of media in fostering illiberalism. The text argues for a shift beyond the concept of populism, suggesting the need for additional conceptual tools to examine the post-populist communication environment. It introduces the concept of the illiberal public sphere, defined as a communicative space promoting illiberal actors and views. The chapter also discusses the historical relationship between liberalism and the public sphere, and the polymorphous nature of the public sphere concept. It concludes by outlining the plan for the rest of the book, which includes a focus on Eastern Europe as a key battleground for illiberalism.AI Generated
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AbstractIlliberalism is increasingly often mentioned among the key threats faced by contemporary liberal democracies, typically alongside populism, right-wing nationalism, democratic backsliding, polarization, or hate speech. Yet, while other threats to democratic institutions and values attracted significant scholarly attention, illiberalism remains poorly defined, and the communication perspective on illiberalism is particularly underdeveloped. This introductory chapter sets out the rationale for developing a set of conceptual tools that can help us examine what happens to public communication after populism becomes a widespread feature of political life, and especially after far right or ultraconservative political actors have successfully mobilized populist strategies to rise to positions of power. To help develop such tools, this book introduces the concept of the illiberal public sphere, defined as a communicative space comprising both traditional and new media that promote and amplify illiberal actors, views, and attitudes. After a brief outline of the concept, this chapter first reviews the key causes of the decline of liberal democracy and situates them vis-à-vis developments in the sphere of communication. It then proceeds with a brief discussion of Eastern Europe as a ‘laboratory of illiberalism’, and an outline of the chapters that follow. -
2. The Rise of the Illiberal Public Sphere
- Open Access
Download PDF-versionThe chapter delves into the growing threat of illiberalism to contemporary liberal democracies, highlighting the conceptual ambiguity surrounding the term. It differentiates illiberalism from related phenomena like populism and democratic backsliding, and introduces the concept of the illiberal public sphere. The author discusses the three stages of the illiberal public sphere—incipient, ascendant, and hegemonic—and provides case studies from Hungary, Poland, the Czech Republic, and Serbia to illustrate these stages. The chapter also emphasizes the dynamic nature of illiberalism and its impact on democratic institutions and values, making it a crucial read for understanding the current political landscape.AI Generated
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AbstractThis chapter sets out the theoretical framework of the book, centred on the key concept of the illiberal public sphere. We first outline our understanding of illiberalism and explain what makes it distinct from related phenomena such as populism and democratic backsliding. Following from that, we introduce the concept of the illiberal public sphere, and elaborate on the historical relationship between liberalism and the public sphere, as well as on the existing alternatives to the classic ‘Habermasian’ model, indicating that a public sphere can exist outside of the scope of liberal democracy. The chapter then proceeds to identify three ideal-typical stages in the development of the illiberal public sphere—labelled as incipient, ascendant and hegemonic—and charts the contemporary state of the illiberal public sphere in each of the four countries that are at the forefront of our analysis. -
3. Polarized Media, Polarized Audiences? News Sources and Illiberal Attitudes
- Open Access
Download PDF-versionThe chapter delves into the relationship between media audiences and illiberal attitudes, focusing on news consumption patterns and their alignment with political views in four Eastern European countries. It begins by mapping out the editorial bias of major news media in each country, revealing strong polarization in Hungary and Serbia, with a clear divide between pro- and anti-government media. The analysis then explores audience news media diets, categorizing them into five distinct repertoires based on their political and ideological coherence. The chapter finds a strong correlation between news consumption patterns and attitudes towards cultural and constitutional issues, with liberal anti-government news consumers displaying more liberal attitudes and conservative pro-government news consumers exhibiting more illiberal views. The study also examines the impact of public service media on audience attitudes, finding significant differences across the four countries. In the Czech Republic, public service media exposure is associated with more liberal attitudes, while in Hungary and Poland, it is linked to more illiberal views. The chapter concludes by interpreting these findings within the broader context of the evolution of the illiberal public sphere in Eastern Europe.AI Generated
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AbstractIn this chapter, we explore the extent and impact of polarization in the media systems of our four Eastern European countries. First, we provide empirical evidence of media polarization, measured by ideological bias and political independence of a sample of the most relevant news brands in each country, which demonstrates that media landscapes display the highest level of polarization in Hungary and Serbia, corresponding with the more advanced state of the illiberal public sphere in these countries compared to the Czech Republic and Poland. Building on this data, we explore patterns of people’s news consumption habits, from the perspective of their political and ideological homogeneity or diversity, identifying five specific ‘media repertoires’ that characterize people’s news diets, which reveal different levels of audience polarization across out countries. Finally, we analyse the relationship between these patterns of news exposure and audiences’ attitudes to culturally and politically polarizing issues, revealing significant associations between political-ideological bias of people’s news sources and their political attitudes, as well as their voting behaviour. -
Chapter 4. Media Trust and News Consumption in the Illiberal Public Sphere
- Open Access
Download PDF-versionThe chapter delves into the intricate relationship between media trust and news consumption in illiberal public spheres, where the decline in trust is significant. It examines how citizens pragmatically navigate this environment, often consuming news from sources they do not fully trust. The research combines quantitative surveys and qualitative interviews to uncover the diverse criteria citizens use to determine trustworthiness, revealing that these criteria can diverge from established norms. The findings challenge conventional assumptions about media trust and its role in democratic societies, offering valuable insights into the complex dynamics of news consumption in polarized environments.AI Generated
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AbstractChapter 4 examines how the patterns of news consumption outlined in the previous chapter relate to media trust. We start by providing a multi-layered mapping of media trust across the four countries, paying attention not just to the more commonly investigated generalized levels of media trust but also trust in individual news brands. We argue that in a context where generalized media trust declines, people adopt a pragmatic approach to media trust, seeking to follow news sources that may not be completely trustworthy, but nonetheless offer a more credible account than others. Second, we examine the relationship between media trust and news consumption and investigate why people consume media they distrust. Finally, we consider how citizens establish which media are trustworthy. The results suggest that in a context where the illiberal public sphere assumes a dominant position, the normative foundations of media trust start shifting, ultimately leading citizens to place trust in media not because they offer impartial or accurate coverage of public affairs, but because they provide an account of reality they personally agree with or—in the extreme case—because their account of reality is aligned with the one promoted by those in power. -
5. Mainstreaming Illiberalism: The Rise of Immigration and LGBTQ+ Rights as Polarizing Issues
- Open Access
Download PDF-versionThe chapter 'Mainstreaming Illiberalism: The Rise of Immigration and LGBTQ+ Rights as Polarizing Issues' delves into the 2023 Budapest Demographic Summit, a biennial event hosted by the Hungarian government to discuss demographic issues. The summit serves as a platform for illiberal politicians to promote conservative policies and express fears about population replacement. The text explores how political leaders such as Viktor Orbán and Giorgia Meloni have used the summit to advocate for family-friendly policies and express anti-immigration sentiments. The chapter also examines the role of the media in shaping public attitudes towards immigration and LGBTQ+ rights, highlighting how media coverage can either foster or resist illiberal narratives. The analysis is based on a population survey conducted in late 2019 and early 2020, providing insights into public attitudes and the impact of media consumption on these attitudes. The chapter concludes by discussing the varying roles of public service media and digital media in different stages of the illiberal public sphere, offering a nuanced understanding of the complex interplay between politics, media, and public opinion.AI Generated
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AbstractChapter 5 zooms in on two polarizing issues—immigration and LGBTQ+ rights—that are central to understanding the rise of illiberalism both in Eastern Europe and globally. We focus on the key actors involved in the process of mainstreaming of immigration and LGBTQ+ rights as key polarizing issues in the four countries—primarily illiberal politicians, but also church leaders and other opinion leaders—and on the extent to which this process was either fostered or hindered by the media. We argue that the role of the media differed depending on how advanced the illiberal public sphere was in a particular country, at a given point in time. When the illiberal public sphere is in an incipient stage, alternative and online outlets play a key role in the promotion of anti-immigrant and homophobic views, while independent mainstream media are still able to instil more liberal attitudes. As the strength of the illiberal public sphere increases, illiberal leaders can count on the support of an ever-wider range of mainstream media outlets, which have capacity to promote illiberal views on a large scale, potentially also leading to shifts in public opinion. At the same time, a well-established illiberal public sphere, which resonates with widespread illiberal attitudes among the citizenry, can also limit the ability of illiberal leaders to steer away from the illiberal agenda. In such a context, the illiberal public sphere becomes a powerful actor in its own right, capable of sustaining illiberalism to some extent independently of elite support. -
6. Social Media: Vectors of Illiberalism or Sources of Resistance?
- Open Access
Download PDF-versionThis chapter delves into the dual role of social media in Eastern Europe, examining whether it facilitates the rise of illiberalism or acts as a tool for resistance. It begins by addressing the slow digital revolution in the region and the varying adoption rates of social media platforms. The focus then shifts to the socio-demographic characteristics of social media users and their political attitudes, particularly their support for democracy and liberal values. The chapter also explores the prevalence of online political participation and its relationship with political beliefs. Notably, it finds that while messaging apps are associated with more illiberal attitudes in some countries, social networking sites are linked to more pro-democracy and liberal views, especially in countries with a more advanced illiberal public sphere. The chapter concludes by highlighting the need for a more nuanced understanding of social media's impact on democracy, considering the nature of the political system and the influence of illiberal actors.AI Generated
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AbstractThis chapter addresses the role of social media in both facilitating the proliferation of illiberal attitudes from the margins to the mainstream, as well as their potential to act as channels of liberal resistance. In the first part, the chapter outlines a brief history of social media adoption by political actors in Eastern Europe, demonstrating how digital platforms aided the rise of right-wing populist parties in the region. Following from that, we explore the socio-demographic characteristics of those who use social media for news, and then consider how social media use relates to illiberal attitudes. The data suggests that in countries where the illiberal public sphere is more advanced, the relative importance of social media as sources of information is greater, and it is more often associated with holding liberal attitudes and support for democracy. Finally, the chapter determines that people who use social media to express their opinions and engage with political content online are more likely to be pro-democratic and liberal-oriented, suggesting thereby that digital platforms might turn out to be an be an important channel for mobilizing liberal opposition once the illiberal public sphere starts dominating over the liberal one. -
7. Information Disorder and the Illiberal Public Sphere
- Open Access
Download PDF-versionThe chapter delves into the phenomenon of information disorder and its impact on the illiberal public sphere in Eastern Europe. It begins with a case study of a viral Facebook post that spread false information about migrants, illustrating the power of disinformation to exploit irrational fears. The author then explores the global attention on disinformation, particularly in the context of the COVID-19 pandemic and the Russian invasion of Ukraine. The chapter focuses on the prevalence and impact of disinformation in Eastern Europe, highlighting the role of both foreign and domestic actors. It also examines specific conspiracy theories, such as those involving George Soros and the Smolensk plane crash, and their influence on public opinion. The data from population and expert surveys provide insights into the beliefs and media consumption habits of individuals in the region. The chapter concludes by discussing the implications of these findings for media literacy initiatives and the prospects of combating disinformation in the context of polarization and illiberalism.AI Generated
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AbstractThis chapter is devoted to the mapping and analysis of the disinformation ecosystem across our sample, examining the ways in which different stages of the illiberal public sphere are linked with the dissemination and reception of false or manipulated information and narratives. We first explore the extent of people’s exposure to misinformation, before mapping the information ecosystems across the four countries and examining specific channels and brands which play a major role in the dissemination of misinformation. Our findings indicate that in countries with a more advanced illiberal public sphere, the perception of misinformation is greater, and their channels are more likely to involve mainstream news media brands. The chapter then focuses on the prevalence of beliefs that are rooted in some of the most popular conspiracy narratives in the region—those involving the US philanthropist George Soros and the 2010 Smolensk air disaster. Finally, we pay attention to a specific communication channel which serves as an important instrument for disinformation campaigns in some of the countries, namely the so-called ‘chain emails’. -
8. News Consumption and the Illiberal Public Sphere During the COVID-19 Pandemic
- Open Access
Download PDF-versionThe COVID-19 pandemic brought unprecedented disruption to news production and consumption, with media professionals adapting to remote work and audiences facing an onslaught of conflicting information. This chapter focuses on the experiences in four Eastern European countries—the Czech Republic, Hungary, Poland, and Serbia—during the first wave of the pandemic. It examines how the crisis was used by some governments to push through controversial legislation, and how this affected public trust in experts and government communication. The study reveals that countries with more advanced illiberal public spheres, such as Hungary and Serbia, faced greater distrust in government communication and experts, leading to higher vulnerability to misinformation. The analysis also highlights how the reliance on social media for alternative expert opinions could both inform and mislead the public. This chapter offers a nuanced understanding of the challenges posed by the pandemic to public health communication in politically polarized environments.AI Generated
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AbstractThis chapter focuses on information consumption and the illiberal public sphere during the COVID-19 pandemic. More specifically, we ask whether countries where polarization is more advanced, and where the illiberal public sphere is more firmly established, responded to the health crisis differently than those where illiberal tendencies are less evident. Drawing on a unique set of qualitative interviews and diaries collected during the first wave of the pandemic, we investigate how the combined effects of disruption caused by the pandemic and attempts to abuse the crisis for political gain affected citizens’ engagement with COVID-19 news, responses to government communication, trust in experts, and vulnerability to misinformation. Our analysis suggests that countries where the illiberal public sphere was more entrenched were at a distinct disadvantage, particularly if governing elites abused the situation to further expand their control over public life. Even though leaders in all four countries initially avoided politicizing the crisis, the more advanced state of the illiberal public sphere in two of the countries—Hungary and Serbia—arguably contributed to turning the public health emergency into a divisive event, sawing distrust in the government as well as in experts, while making citizens potentially more vulnerable to misinformation. -
9. Conclusions
- Open Access
Download PDF-versionThis chapter concludes a study on the role of communication in the rise of illiberalism, introducing the concept of the illiberal public sphere. It discusses the key constitutive processes and tipping points in the evolution of this sphere, using empirical data from Eastern European countries. The study highlights the role of media polarization, the hollowing out of the political center, and the mainstreaming of illiberal attitudes. It also offers recommendations for journalistic practices and media policies to counter these trends. The analysis provides a robust framework for future research on illiberalism and its impact on democratic societies.AI Generated
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AbstractThis concluding chapter summarizes the main findings across the book and reflects on their broader implications. We first discuss what the comparison between the four countries tells us about the key constitutive processes and tipping points in the rise of the illiberal public sphere, and then outline most recent developments in Eastern Europe and beyond, asking what they might mean for the prospects of the illiberal public sphere. Finally, we offer some suggestions for journalistic practices and media policies with a potential to make media systems more resilient and contain the challenges of illiberalism.
- Title
- The Illiberal Public Sphere
- Authors
-
Václav Štětka
Sabina Mihelj
- Copyright Year
- 2024
- Publisher
- Springer Nature Switzerland
- Electronic ISBN
- 978-3-031-54489-7
- Print ISBN
- 978-3-031-54488-0
- DOI
- https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-54489-7
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