The Palgrave Handbook of Arctic Policy and Politics

Table of Contents

1. Frontmatter

2. Chapter 1. Introduction: Circumpolar Dimensions of the Governance of the Arctic

   Ken S. Coates, Carin Holroyd

   Abstract

   The Arctic has, for some 40 years, been among the most creative political regions and innovative policy environments in the world. The region has developed impressive systems for intra-regional cooperation, responded to the challenges of the rapid environmental changes, empowered and engaged with Indigenous peoples and dealt with the multiple challenges of natural resource development. Politics in the Arctic reflect a unique blend of Indigenous mobilization, the active engagement of non-Indigenous residents, and the complex interplay of national politics, international engagement and the interests of powerful southern and global interests, including resource companies, non-governmental organizations and non-Arctic nations seeking to carve out a role for themselves in the decision-making related to the future of the Far North. The Palgrave Handbook on Arctic Policy has drawn on scholars from many countries and academic disciplines to focus on the central theme of Arctic policy innovation. The portrait that emerges from these papers is of a complex, fluid policy and political environment shaped by internal, national and global dynamics and by a wide range of political, legal, economic and social transitions. Effective, proactive and forward-looking policy innovation will be required if the Far North is to be able to address its challenges. The collection reveals the creativity of the Arctic and the region’s determination to create its own future in a world previously defined by global economic interests and national preoccupations.

3. Indigenous Peoples and Arctic Social Dynamics

   1. Frontmatter

   2. Chapter 2. Indigenous Peoples of the Arctic: Re-taking Control of the Far North

      Ken S. Coates, Else Grete Broderstad

      Abstract

      Fifty years ago, Indigenous affairs played a minor role in the political affairs of the Circumpolar World. Indigenous frustrations with rapidly changing northern conditions included the expansion of the welfare state, the growth of northern infrastructure and resource development, and the influx of a substantial number of non-Indigenous peoples into the North. This era, continuing a pattern of colonial intervention that stretches back generations across the Arctic, saw the emergence of active Indigenous political activism and a gradual transformation of the role of Indigenous people and governments in national and international political affairs. The changes in Indigenous political engagement have been both profound and productive, resulting in significant improvements in economic, social and cultural conditions while leaving major health, linguistic and community issues to be addressed. The most significant transition emerging from Indigenous activism has been the emergence of co-production of policy and programming as a central feature of Indigenous-government relations with the exception of Russia, where development has unfolded more slowly, Circumpolar governments have increasingly incorporated Indigenous people into decision-making processes and government systems, providing consultation, coordination and a shift toward collaborative planning.

   3. Chapter 3. Indigenous Internationalism in the Arctic

      Gary N. Wilson

      Abstract

      One of the most important developments in Arctic politics is the emergence of a diverse range of governmental and non-governmental organizations which represent the interests and goals of the Indigenous peoples of this vast and diverse region. Although many of these organizations exist at the local and sub-national levels and promote the self-determination of Indigenous peoples in individual countries, several transnational organizations representing Indigenous peoples across multiple states are active in the international arena. These organizations have participated extensively in international forums and associations such as the Arctic Council, where they have contributed to the development of policies aimed at monitoring and protecting the Arctic environment, and emergency response and management. As climate change and advances in technology make the Arctic more accessible to resource development and maritime transportation, the Indigenous peoples who have lived in this region for thousands of years will have to overcome a number of challenges that test their capacity and their ability to continue to project their voice among a multitude of new and powerful actors.

   4. Chapter 4. Demographic Changes in the Arctic

      Timothy Heleniak, Eeva Turunen, Shinan Wang

      Abstract

      All Arctic regions are in economically and demographically advanced countries but differ considerably in population size, growth rates, and settlement structure, as well as in fertility, epidemiological, and migration patterns. There are also significant demographic differences between Arctic indigenous and non-indigenous populations. In the North American Arctic, the populations of Alaska and the three northern territories of Canada have had significant population growth over the past several decades. In the northern Atlantic, the population of Iceland grew significantly while the populations of Greenland and the Faroe Islands had no growth. In the Nordic Arctic, the population of all Norwegian Arctic regions grew, while the Swedish and Finnish Arctic regions had moderate growth overall, with some regions showing declining growth. The population of the Russian Arctic continued its post-Soviet contraction with continued declines in all but two regions. Across the Arctic, there has been a general trend toward the concentration of populations into larger urban centers and declines in smaller settlements. Based on an examination of projections of the Arctic populations, the current demographic trend in the Arctic is expected to continue in the future.

4. Economic Development

   1. Frontmatter

   2. Chapter 5. State Expansion and Indigenous Response in the Arctic: A Globally Integrated Northern Borderland Emerges from the Historical Synthesis of Northern Frontier and Northern Homeland

      Barry Scott Zellen

      Abstract

      Since the state and its colonial proxies first encroached upon their homeland three centuries ago, natives of the North have continued to assert and defend their Aboriginal rights and cultural traditions and have sought to preserve as much of the autonomy of their independent polities now threatened by state expansion as they could. As natives learned more about the many systems and structures of governance that were exported from Eurasia, from the commercial trading posts and early global networks they were part of, to the representative constitutional democracies that took root in their homelands, they found many new ways to reassert and, increasingly, restore their autonomy—through innovative domestic diplomacy, protracted (sometimes multi-decade) negotiations, and various forms of political protest and engagement. The northern tranquility long observed to define the Arctic region as a whole, and which is particularly salient in the Western Arctic, owes much then to the domestic reconciliation of tribe and state that has taken place during this historic and exemplary northward state expansion.

   3. Chapter 6. The Economy of the Arctic

      Joan Nymand Larsen, Andrey N. Petrov

      Abstract

      The Arctic economy is comprised of a broad range of local, regional, and national economies in highly diverse settings. These economies exhibit broad variations in terms of both natural and human resources, as well as in their economic structure and capacities, employment and role of private and public actors, and the range and importance of the issues and challenges they face. At the same time, they have many distinct features in common, some of which are structural in nature and may impede or challenge future economic development at various levels and scales. The dominant components of the Arctic economy include formal (market-based), traditional (subsistence), and transfer (public) sectors. Although the Arctic economy is increasingly shaped by events, decisions, and activities happening elsewhere, with the future of the Arctic influenced by non-Arctic regional, social, political, and economic interests, Arctic regions and communities are taking steps toward positioning themselves to tackle the challenges of economic development and embarking on fostering alternative, locally embedded economic activities. These activities focus on arts and crafts, tourism, small-scale manufacturing, and North-specific technological innovation, as well as address the coupling of traditional, market-based, and public and transfer economies. It also includes seeking new institutional arrangements that leave more control in the hands of local communities—ways forward that appear to signal a changing balance of power.

   4. Chapter 7. Extractive Energy and Arctic Communities

      Noor Johnson

      Abstract

      This chapter offers a review of the current policy framework for extractive energy engagement with Arctic communities. It reviews the roles of actors and policies that shape industry-community engagements, including policies and frameworks developed by the Arctic Council and its working groups, Arctic states, and non-governmental organization (NGOs). This is followed by a discussion of risks posed to Arctic residents and current strategies for risk mitigation, including environmental impact assessment and impact and benefit agreements. The chapter concludes with a consideration of the need to diversify regional and local economies in the Arctic, particularly in light of climate change and the global transition to renewable energy.

   5. Chapter 8. Innovation, New Technologies, and the Future of the Circumpolar North

      Heather M. Hall

      Abstract

      Regions throughout the Circumpolar North are experiencing unprecedented changes, including the impacts of climate change and the increasing recognition of Indigenous rights. These changes are occurring alongside traditional challenges facing the North including the climate, low population densities, and remoteness. Innovation has the potential to counteract these pressing challenges facing the Circumpolar North; however, it could also deepen and present new challenges if it is not created with the North, for the North. This chapter explores innovation in the context of the Circumpolar North, including challenges and opportunities, while highlighting the importance of the innovation ecosystem. It also provides examples of new and adapted technologies that are being used in the Arctic to enhance traditional industries, promote social innovation, and encourage economic diversification. It concludes with a discussion of how to ensure that the development of new or improved innovative products, processes, and/or services occurs with the North, for the North.

   6. Chapter 9. Arctic Advanced Education and Research

      Anne Husebekk, Kenneth Ruud, Sveinung Eikeland, Geir Gotaas

      Abstract

      Skilled candidates, research results that are useful both immediately and in a longer time frame, innovation and business creation, and the strengthening of the public sector are among the most important societal impacts of a university. In short, universities provide a survival kit in a changing world.

      The University of Tromsø–The Arctic University of Norway (UiT) has been instrumental in developing the northernmost part of Norway since its inception 50 years ago, and will continue to be so in the foreseeable future. Knowledge and competence originating at UiT has also contributed decisively to the development of Norwegian national Arctic policy.

      Similarly, international Arctic policy development will benefit greatly from including the perspectives and experiences developed at universities in the circumpolar North.

   7. Chapter 10. Circumpolar Business Development: The Paradox of Governance?

      Andrei Mineev, Elena Dybtsyna, Frode Mellemvik

      Abstract

      The purpose of this chapter is to describe the state-of-the-art in commercial activity and raise stakeholders’ awareness of challenges and opportunities for business development in the Arctic using comprehensive, comparable and regular socio-economic information. This information comes from the ongoing project Business Index North (BIN). Based on the BIN project reports, the chapter outlines several paradoxes and dilemmas that may affect the future development of business in the Arctic. These paradoxes and dilemmas, in general put as Paradox of Governance, are associated with two contradicting trends: steady economic growth and depopulation—especially the loss of young people. In particular, there is economic growth in traditional industries and industries based on natural resources. Paradoxically this goes hand in hand with a decline in the number of jobs in these industries. As a way forward, the chapter provides some recommendations for strengthening institutes of governance based on cross-border cooperation, dialogue and involvement of key players in the Arctic, such as the business sector, academia and regional authorities in the decision-making processes. This kind of governance dealing with the regional driving forces, solutions and consequences of circumpolar business development makes it possible to operationalize investments in human and social capital, transport and ICT infrastructure that can fuel sustainable economic growth and a good quality of life for the people working and living in the Arctic.

   8. Chapter 11. Multinational Corporations in the Arctic: From Colonial-Era Chartered Companies to Contemporary Co-management and Collaborative Governance

      Barry Scott Zellen

      Abstract

      An imperial crossroads of global—and in particular, economic—importance for centuries, the Western Arctic region remains largely underdeveloped as compared to other such crossroads of empire. It’s a vast region spanning two countries, encompassing one state and two territories that converge along a boundary once separating two global empires, Russia’s and Britain’s, at the zenith of their territorial breadth—until the sale of Russian-America to the United States. The Western Arctic’s relative underdevelopment has resulted in a relatively light influx of settlers, despite—indeed, one might argue, because of—the active role of the world’s first multinational corporations (MNCs), the crown-chartered companies of the colonial era like the Hudson’s Bay Company (HBC), leaving the indigenous peoples of the region with a substantial and sustained demographic majority that has contributed to their recent, and historic, re-empowerment.

   9. Chapter 12. The Future of Work in the Arctic

      Ken S. Coates

      Abstract

      Rapid technological change has brought major transitions to the North, including the nature and future of work. Labor-saving technologies are particularly important in the Far North because of the high cost of labor. Given regional employment uncertainties, tied to cyclical and seasonal economies, the fact that companies and governments can increasingly rely on robotic and digital solutions to replace workers could cause significant social disruptions. While new jobs will be created, many of the future openings will require higher levels of scientific and technological competence. Northerners, particularly Indigenous peoples, often struggle to secure competitive educational opportunities, leading to the likelihood that many of the new positions will be filled by outsiders. The challenges of adapting education, training and employment systems to the new realities of work represent some of the most formidable policy challenges in the North.