The Political Scholarship of Giovanni Sartori
Beyond All Conventions
- 2025
- Book
- Authors
- Marek Bankowicz
- Michal Kubát
- Book Series
- Global Political Thinkers
- Publisher
- Springer Nature Switzerland
About this book
This book systematically analyzes Sartori’s complete body of scholarship in English for the first time. It seeks to cover all of Sartori’s main theories, many of which he developed in response to his dissatisfaction with the existing knowledge. The authors begin with the philosophical foundations of his work; then, they look at his conception of democracy. The authors will pause momentarily to discuss Sartori’s general theory of dictatorship. Still, they return to democracy and its main actors, such as political parties and party systems, and to the forms of democracy, i.e., the various democratic regimes Sartori examined primarily in terms of their functionality. Finally, the book examines Sartori’s methodology of political science and the social sciences and, in general, his view of political science and its purpose.
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Table of Contents
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Frontmatter
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Chapter 1. Introduction
Marek Bankowicz, Michal KubátThis chapter offers an in-depth exploration of Giovanni Sartori's life and work, a figure whose intellectual legacy has significantly shaped modern political science. Born in Florence, Sartori's career was marked by his unyielding pursuit of truth and his willingness to challenge conventional wisdom, earning him a reputation as a 'mordant political polemicist.' His academic journey began in Italy, where he faced numerous obstacles in establishing political science as a distinct discipline, ultimately succeeding in creating a unique brand of political science inspired by Anglo-Saxon culture. Sartori's contrarian thinking, characterized by his provocative yet constructive critiques, extended the thoroughness of debates in political science. His contributions span political theory, methodological writings, and comparative politics, with his theory of party systems being one of his most renowned works. The chapter also delves into Sartori's lesser-known philosophical and methodological contributions, providing a comprehensive analysis of his complete body of scholarship. It highlights his systemic criticism of Marxism, his theory of democracy, and his analysis of institutions and political regimes. Sartori's legacy is not just academic; it is also political, as he was known for his scathing yet constructive critiques of Italian politics. This chapter promises to provide a fresh perspective on Sartori's work, making it an essential read for anyone interested in the development of modern political science.AI Generated
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AbstractThis chapter is the introduction to the entire monograph devoted to the scholarly work of Giovanni Sartori. In the first part, it emphasises the uniqueness and specificity of Sartori’s work. Biographical passages follow this. Still, further on, the chapter describes the book’s structure, which follows his main professional interests, from philosophy and political philosophy to democratic theory and dictatorship theory, followed by a focus on democratic institutions, especially political parties and democratic regimes, in terms of their functionality. Finally, Sartori’s conception of science and political science is given attention. This introductory chapter also explains why it is important to write about Sartori and, generally, the book’s uniqueness. This is the first book in English to compactly and comprehensively survey Sartori’s entire scholarly output, including little-known topics on which he mainly wrote only in Italian. Existing publications on Sartori are either in Italian or English, but English texts analyse only particular parts of Sartori’s work. -
Chapter 2. Sartori’s Beginnings in Philosophy
Marek Bankowicz, Michal KubátThis chapter uncovers the philosophical roots of Giovanni Sartori, a figure celebrated for his contributions to political science, by exploring his early academic journey during Italy's Fascist era. Sartori's initial foray into philosophy was driven by dramatic personal circumstances, including his decision to evade conscription during World War II, which led him to delve into the works of Hegel, Croce, and Gentile while in hiding. This chapter examines Sartori's profound engagement with Kantian ethics, highlighting his admiration for Kant's moral philosophy and his critique of Hegel's historicising moral order. Sartori's interpretations of Kant's categorical imperatives and his defense of Kantian ethics as a philosophy of morality are explored in detail, revealing his commitment to a rigorous and principled moral framework. The chapter also delves into Sartori's complex relationship with Croce's philosophy of the Spirit, critiquing Croce's idealism for its abstraction and detachment from reality. Sartori's lifelong adherence to Kantian ethics and his critical evaluations of Hegel and Croce's philosophies are discussed, providing a comprehensive overview of his philosophical influences and their impact on his academic and personal life. This chapter offers a unique perspective on Sartori's intellectual development, showcasing his early philosophical pursuits and the enduring influence of these formative experiences on his later work in political science.AI Generated
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AbstractThis chapter is devoted to Sartori’s critical analyses of the writings of philosophers Immanuel Kant, George W. F. Hegel, and Benedetto Croce, analyses that are entirely unknown outside Italy. Sartori was mainly interested in the ethical writings of Kant and Hegel, while his studies of Croce focused on his entire body of work. Sartori was a champion of Kantian philosophy, which he understood as a philosophy of morality. He believed morality and ethics to be a fundamental part of human life. Conversely, he was critical of Hegel’s relative and nebulous (presentation of morality as determined and subordinate to the historical development. He considered Croce one of the most essential idealist philosophers ever, describing him as a fundamentalist moralist who emphasises ethics in every aspect of the Spirit. Croce, however, rejected every form of empiricism, and Sartori considered this risky, especially in politics, which could become overly ideologised and detached from reality. On the whole, Sartori criticised Croce for ‘over-philosophising and over-idealising’ the problems he was studying, resulting from which his philosophy is wholly abstract, extremely speculative, and disconnected from facts. Sartori claimed, by contrast, that philosophy must engage in a dialogue (a conversation) with reality, and he disagreed with negating all the empirical aspects of life. -
Chapter 3. Polemics with Marxism
Marek Bankowicz, Michal KubátThe chapter presents a comprehensive critique of Marxism through the lens of Gianfranco Sartori, a renowned political scientist. Sartori's analysis spans the entirety of Marx's career, from his early philosophical works to his later economic theories, highlighting the inconsistencies and ideological shifts within Marxism. A central theme is the distinction between the 'young' and 'mature' Marx, with Sartori arguing that the latter's focus on historical materialism and economics led to a regressive and deterministic worldview. The chapter also explores Marxism's relationship with democracy, revolution, and the concept of the dictatorship of the proletariat, revealing Sartori's belief that Marxism fundamentally misunderstands political power and the nature of human freedom. Additionally, the text delves into the utopian aspects of Marxism, comparing it to anarchist ideals and questioning the feasibility of its vision for a classless society. Sartori's critique is not merely a rehash of traditional anti-Marxist arguments but offers a fresh perspective by emphasizing the libertarian core of Marxism, making it a compelling read for those interested in the philosophical and political dimensions of this influential ideology.AI Generated
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AbstractThis chapter introduces Sartori’s writings on Marx, which are almost forgotten today. Sartori’s critical analysis of Marxism was both conventional and innovative. Sartori’s most original contribution to political theory may be the insight that Marxism, in its essence, is not an egalitarian but a libertarian ideology. Sartori considered Marxism not an ideology of equality but an ideology of liberty, though one often mistakenly defined and understood. Marx’s cry for an alternative democracy and his vision of the definitive triumph of liberty that will bring about the ideal society and the end of history establishes an essential link between him and Rousseau. Sartori considered Rousseau to be Marx’s progenitor. While Rousseau may be the patron of those who aspire to supersede liberal democracy, Marx is the hero of those who reject liberal democracy altogether. Sartori points out that both inspire their followers from far-reaching libertarian positions. -
Chapter 4. On Democracy
Marek Bankowicz, Michal KubátThis chapter provides a profound exploration of the concept of democracy, tracing its historical development and theoretical foundations. It begins by highlighting the abstract and almost magical nature of democracy, a concept that has captivated political thinkers for centuries. The chapter delves into the works of Giovanni Sartori, one of the most influential theorists of democracy, who dedicated his life to studying and defining this elusive concept. Sartori's contributions are examined in detail, including his seminal works 'Democratic Theory' and 'The Theory of Democracy Revisited,' which have had a significant impact on the field of political science. The chapter also discusses Sartori's views on the role of discussions and considerations in democratic governance, arguing that democracy is fundamentally a system of governance based on rational deliberation. It explores the tension between the normative (ideal) and empirical (practical) dimensions of democracy, emphasizing the importance of both in understanding and implementing democratic principles. The chapter further examines the concept of 'the people' in democracy, distinguishing between ancient and modern interpretations and highlighting the role of representation in contemporary democratic systems. It also delves into the challenges and threats facing modern democracies, including the rise of 'homo videns,' the dangers of multiculturalism, and the environmental crisis. The chapter concludes with a reflection on Sartori's legacy and the enduring relevance of his theories in the face of contemporary political challenges.AI Generated
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AbstractThis chapter discusses Sartori’s theory of democracy. Sartori was one of the main proponents of the competitive theory of democracy, which he set in opposition to the ‘participatory’ theory of democracy, which he asserted did not consider the difference between the democracy of antiquity and modern-day democracy. The competitive theory of democracy is a descriptive (empirical) theory that explains how democracies actually work. However, Sartori stressed that descriptive theory alone is not enough; we also need a prescriptive (normative) theory of democracy. For Sartori, it was characteristic that he was primarily interested in the problems of democracy, while his definitions of democracy are less important. Indeed, he was a great advocate of democracy and worried about its fate. Sartori strongly rejected so-called democracies with qualifiers (e.g., popular democracy, national democracy, etc.), which he considered mere façades of democracy, behind which some form of dictatorship is concealed. The only exception in his view was liberal democracy, and he devoted considerable attention to it because it was democracy in the true sense of the word. Liberal democracy is democracy as such because only the combination of liberalism and democracy will lead to a liberal constitutional state, which is the only effective application of democracy in practice. For natural reasons, Sartori could not participate in the debate on the current ‘democratic backsliding.’ In his time, however, he did not shy away from the question of the future of democracy. Sartori linked the danger of democracy to three phenomena—homo videns, multiculturalism, and environmental destruction. -
Chapter 5. A General Theory of Dictatorship
Marek Bankowicz, Michal KubátThis chapter delves into the theoretical underpinnings of non-democratic regimes, with a particular focus on the contributions of Giovanni Sartori. Sartori, though not widely recognized in contemporary political science literature, offers a nuanced understanding of dictatorship that is scattered across various writings and largely untranslated. The chapter highlights Sartori's view that dictatorships are inherently illegitimate, as they usurp political power through force rather than democratic elections. It explores the distinctions between authoritarianism and totalitarianism, noting that authoritarian regimes control the political sphere but are less interested in other aspects of society, while totalitarian regimes seek total control, including over private lives. Sartori's precise use of terminology is emphasized, particularly his differentiation between dictatorship, tyranny, despotism, and absolutism. The chapter also presents Sartori's classification of dictatorships based on intensity, objective, origin, and ideology, providing a comprehensive framework for understanding the diverse forms of non-democratic rule. Additionally, it discusses the historical evolution of the concept of dictatorship, from ancient Rome to modern times, and the challenges dictatorships face, such as succession crises and the lack of institutionalized power. The chapter concludes by underscoring Sartori's significant yet often overlooked contributions to the field of non-democratic politics, offering a fresh perspective on the study of authoritarian and totalitarian regimes.AI Generated
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AbstractThis chapter examines a lesser-known area of interest for Sartori: the theory of dictatorship. Political science literature on this subject has mostly focused on totalitarian and authoritarian regimes, to which Sartori also devoted some attention. What he was most interested in, however, was a theory of dictatorship in general, where dictatorship is a class that encompasses the traditional concepts of totalitarianism and authoritarianism. Sartori developed two typologies of dictatorships. The first is based on four basic distinct criteria: intensity, objective, origin, and ideology. This results in up to ten types of dictatorship: simple, Caesarist, totalitarian, revolutionary, dictatorship of order, political, military, bureaucratic, non-ideological, and ideological. This broad typology, while highly original, is also somewhat convoluted and has not gained much traction (a role in this was also played, however, by the fact that it was not translated into English). Sartori, therefore, presented a much simpler typology of dictatorships in one of his later texts (in English), which was also more consistent with the more established typologies of other scholars: totalitarian, authoritarian, and simple. -
Chapter 6. Democracy and Political Parties
Marek Bankowicz, Michal KubátThe chapter examines the pivotal role of political parties in democratic systems, as articulated by Giovanni Sartori. It begins by exploring Sartori's competitive theory of democracy, which emphasizes the necessity of a 'democracy of parties.' The text delves into Sartori's unfinished work on political parties, which was partially lost due to a theft, and his subsequent focus on party systems. Sartori's classification and typology of party systems are discussed in detail, highlighting his unique approach to understanding the dynamics of party competition and ideological polarisation. The chapter also compares Sartori's theories with those of Maurice Duverger, another seminal figure in the study of political parties. It critically evaluates Sartori's critique of Duverger, revealing both the strengths and limitations of Sartori's arguments. The text concludes by emphasizing the enduring relevance of Sartori's theories in understanding the complexities of modern democratic systems, despite the passage of time and the evolution of political parties. The chapter is a must-read for anyone seeking a deeper understanding of the interplay between political parties and democracy, and the theoretical frameworks that underpin this relationship.AI Generated
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AbstractThe chapter discusses Sartori’s theory of parties and party systems. While only a fragment of Sartori’s theory of political parties has survived, and it was not a theory that strayed much from the usual approaches to this subject at the time, his theory of party systems is impressive. It is one of the most original and respected things he ever wrote. This is especially true of his classification and typology of party systems, two distinct phenomena. His classification is based on one criterion (the format of a party system or the number of relevant parties in the system) and leads to the identification of classes. His typology is based on two criteria (the format and mechanics of a party system) and leads to identifying types. The mechanics of a party system take a different form in a democracy and a non-democracy. In a democracy, it is the ideological distance between parties; in a dictatorship, it is the intensity of ideology. Out of all types of party systems, polarised pluralism is the most important in terms of its functioning. It is one of the most remarkable contributions to analysing party systems in general. The chapter also analyses the complicated relationship between Sartori and the founder of contemporary research on parties and party systems, Maurice Duverger. -
Chapter 7. Functional and Dysfunctional Democracies
Marek Bankowicz, Michal KubátThis chapter explores the foundational principles of democratic institutions, emphasizing the systemic and functional aspects that drive their effectiveness. It begins by highlighting Giovanni Sartori's seminal work on democratic regimes, particularly his book 'Comparative Constitutional Engineering,' which has been instrumental in shaping contemporary political science. Sartori's research underscores the importance of understanding democratic systems as complex mechanisms, where institutions, electoral systems, and party systems are interdependent components. The chapter delves into Sartori's systemic approach, which views democratic systems as machines driven by interconnected parts, each influencing the overall functionality. It examines the critical role of electoral systems in shaping party systems and the spectrum of representation, challenging conventional wisdom that downgrades their importance. Sartori's analysis of Duverger's Laws and his own theoretical contributions provide a deep dive into how electoral and party systems interact, offering insights into why some regimes function better than others. The chapter also explores Sartori's views on different types of democratic regimes—presidentialism, parliamentarism, and semi-presidentialism—highlighting the conditions under which each type thrives or falters. It critiques the normative approaches of scholars like Arend Lijphart, who advocate for consensus democracy, and argues for a more pragmatic, context-specific understanding of democratic governance. The chapter concludes with Sartori's innovative proposal of 'alternating presidentialism,' a hybrid regime designed to maximize functionality and adaptability, and his enduring contributions to the debate on political reform and democratic improvement.AI Generated
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AbstractThis chapter focuses on Sartori’s analysis of democratic regimes. Sartori took a complex approach to democratic regimes and considered the crucial factors of a regime to be its given configuration of institutions and its electoral and party systems. These components together form a complex whole, and how they are arranged, related, and depend on each other determines how individual democratic regimes differ from each other in a typological sense and, above all, influences how they function in practice. Sartori did not share the common enthusiasm for consensual and proportional politics. He did not believe that the consensual model of democracy (e.g., a proportional electoral system or a parliamentary regime) is under all circumstances better than the majoritarian model of democracy (e.g., a majoritarian electoral system or a presidential regime), which was the view held by Arend Lijphart, with whom Sartori engaged in a fierce debate. Generally, Sartori favoured ‘mixed’ forms (a semi-presidential regime). He even proposed his own altogether original system, ‘alternating presidentialism,’ which is a combination of parliamentarism and presidentialism. It always depends, however, on the given context. One type of arrangement works better in certain conditions and another in others. No one model is the best and the right one for every country. -
Chapter 8. Science and Political Science
Marek Bankowicz, Michal KubátThis chapter examines the profound influence of philosophy on Giovanni Sartori's methodological approach to political science. Sartori, inspired by philosophers such as Leibniz, J. S. Mill, and Gottlob Frege, developed a coherent and original application of linguistic and methodological insights to political science. The chapter explores Sartori's conception of political science as an empirical, applied, and heuristic discipline, distinct from philosophy and other social sciences. It delves into Sartori's critique of the prevailing trends in American political science, particularly behaviouralism and the over-reliance on quantitative methods. Sartori argued for a contextual and problem-driven approach to political science, emphasizing the importance of concepts, language, and comparison. The chapter highlights Sartori's contributions to comparative political science and his enduring influence on the field. It also discusses Sartori's views on the practical and applicable nature of political science, his advocacy for empirical verification, and his critique of grand theories and models. The chapter concludes by emphasizing Sartori's unique blend of scholarship and science, his contextual approach to political science, and his enduring legacy in the field.AI Generated
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AbstractThis chapter deals with Sartori’s conception of political science as a discipline and its methodology. Sartori conceived political science as a distinct scientific discipline with clear theoretical, conceptual, and methodological foundations. It is an empirical science whose empiricism is not data-driven but contextual. Political science research cannot ignore historical, cultural, religious, geographical, or other contexts. Political science should also be applicable in practice; that is, it should be able to provide practical insights and answer concrete questions. This is reflected in the methodology of political science, which Sartori understood not in its narrow sense as a set of research techniques but as ‘logos,’ as thinking about thinking. The key element here is that concepts must be correctly formulated (and used correctly) and have a solid semantic and logical foundation. Sartori was skeptical of quantitative research or, at best, saw it as dependent on the right conceptual foundations. First, it is necessary to establish a concept, and only then can it be quantified. On the other hand, he greatly supported comparative politics, to which he devoted considerable attention. What mattered was to make the right comparisons and to avoid what he called ‘miscomparing,’ which leads at best to the creation of ‘cat-dogs,’ usually caused by such as parochialism, misclassification, degreeism, and conceptual stretching. -
Chapter 9. Conclusion
Marek Bankowicz, Michal KubátThis chapter explores the life and work of Giovanni Sartori, a pivotal figure in the development of contemporary political science. Sartori's passion for politics and his contrarian thinking led him to create a coherent system of political thought that encompasses democracy, political institutions, parties, and regimes. His work is marked by a deep understanding of politics as a complex and sometimes mysterious phenomenon, requiring a contextual empiricism that considers historical, cultural, and other contexts. Sartori's conception of political science as an independent, yet interconnected, scientific field has left an indelible mark on the discipline. Despite not winning all his polemical battles, his ideas continue to influence political science research and practice. The chapter also delves into Sartori's engagement with Italian politics, his call for practical political science, and his enduring legacy. It highlights the paradox of his influence, where his theoretical contributions are widely accepted, but his methodological approaches are less so. The chapter concludes by emphasizing the enduring relevance of Sartori's work, arguing that it is impossible to engage in serious political science research without drawing on his insights. It invites readers to explore the depth and breadth of Sartori's contributions, offering a compelling narrative of his life, work, and legacy.AI Generated
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AbstractThis chapter is the conclusion of the whole book. It briefly summarises Sartori’s uniqueness, originality, and importance. Sartori’s work is impressive, but the chapter does not shy away from the areas where Sartori failed. In particular, the issues of political commentary and advice, where Sartori, as an expert in political theory, became involved in the Italian debates on reforming the Italian political system in the 1990s. His proposals, however, did not influence Italian politicians. Nevertheless, Sartori never abandoned the idea that it was the duty of political scientists to participate in such discussions. However, his failure to put his ideas into political praxis contrasts sharply with the size and influence of his scholarly work, from which generations of political scientists have drawn to the present day. -
Backmatter
- Title
- The Political Scholarship of Giovanni Sartori
- Authors
-
Marek Bankowicz
Michal Kubát
- Copyright Year
- 2025
- Publisher
- Springer Nature Switzerland
- Electronic ISBN
- 978-3-031-89636-1
- Print ISBN
- 978-3-031-89635-4
- DOI
- https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-89636-1
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