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2020 | OriginalPaper | Chapter

1. The Price and Possibilities of Going East? The European Union and Wider Europe, the European Neighbourhood and the Eastern Partnership

Author : Rick Fawn

Published in: Managing Security Threats along the EU’s Eastern Flanks

Publisher: Springer International Publishing

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Abstract

After a forgotten but easy enlargement in 1990, the European Community/European Union has moved itself ever east, and southeastwards. By 2007, it had come down to the western coasts of the Black Sea. This chapter analyses how the EU moved eastwards and how it sought to cope with the challenges that have arisen. This is done through an analysis of the EU’s Global Strategy and its major EU outreach, including its concepts of ‘Wider Europe’, the European Neighbourhood and the Eastern Partnership.

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next chapter Turning Points and Shifting Understandings of European Security: The European Neighbourhood Policy’s Development

Growing literature on the EU and the EaP includes: Dimitris Bouris and Tobias Schumacher, The Revised European Neighbourhood Policy: Continuity and Change in EU Foreign Policy (Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2018); Licinia Simão, The EU’s Neighbourhood Policy towards the South Caucasus (Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2018); and Elena Korosteleva, The European Union and its Eastern Neighbours: Towards a More Ambitious Partnership? (London: Routledge, 2012).

On the challenge of Brexit to the EU’s Global Strategy, see for example, Sven Biscop ‘All or Nothing? The EU Global Strategy and Defence Policy after the Brexit’, Contemporary Security Policy, 37:3 (2016), 431–445.

Eurostat, Asylum statistics, available at: https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/statistics-explained/index.php/Asylum_statistics.

See for example, Richard Youngs, Europe Reset: New Directions for the EU (London: I.B. Tauris, 2017).

Apart from literature on transforming accession or candidate countries, the literature on EU conflict resolution capacities specifically is now considerable. Recent works include Thomas Diez and Nathalie Tocci (eds), The EU, Promoting Regional Integration, and Conflict Resolution (Palgrave, 2017).

An overview of the transformation of democracy promotion is given, for example, in Sandra Lavenex and Frank Schimmelfennig, ‘EU Democracy Promotion in the Neighbourhood: From Leverage to Governance?’, in Sandra Lavenex and Frank Schimmelfennig (eds), Democracy Promotion in the EU’s Neighbourhood: From Leverage to Governance? (Abingdon: Routledge, 2017), esp. pp. 1–2.

Mai’a K. Davis Cross, ‘The EU Global Strategy and Diplomacy’, Contemporary Security Policy (Vol. 37, No. 3, 2016), p. 402.

These can be found on ‘Priorities of the EU Global Strategy’, available at: http://europa.eu/globalstrategy/en/priorities-eu-global-strategy.

European Commission, ‘Security: EU strengthens response to hybrid threats’, Brussels, 6 April 2016, which is hyperlinked into the Global Strategy. Available at: http://europa.eu/rapid/press-release_IP-16-1227_en.htm.

Recent case-based comparison is offered in Marek Neuman (ed.), Democracy Promotion and the Normative Power Europe Framework: The European Union in South Eastern Europe, Eastern Europe, and Central Asia (Springer, 2018).

For accounts of the EUMM, see Maria Raquel Freire and Lícinia Simão, ‘The EU’s security actorness: the case of EUMM in Georgia’, European Security Vol. 22, No. 4 (2013), pp. 464–477; and Richard G. Whitman and Stefan Wolff, ‘The EU as a conflict manager? The case of Georgia and its implications’, International Affairs Vol. 86, No. 1 (2010), pp. 87–107.

Dominika Krois, in this volume. See the Joint declaration by the President of the European Council, the President of the European Commission, and the Secretary General of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization, 8 July 2016, available at: https://www.nato.int/cps/en/natohq/official_texts_133163.htm.

A good contemporary account is given in Hiski Haukkala, ‘Russian Reactions to the European Neighbourhood Policy’, Problems of Post-Communism (September/October 2008), pp. 40–48; quotation at p. 41.

Wider Europe—Neighbourhood: A New Framework for Relations with our Eastern and Southern Neighbours (Brussels, 11 March 2003), available at: http://eeas.europa.eu/archives/docs/enp/pdf/pdf/com03_104_en.pdf.

Elisabeth Johansson-Nogués, ‘The EU’s ontological (in)security: Stabilising the ENP area … and the EU-self?’, Cooperation and Conflict, Vol. 53, No. 4 (2018), p. 529.

Sandra Lavenex, ‘EU External Governance in “Wider Europe,”’ Journal of European Public Policy 11:4 (2004), pp. 680–700.

Richard Sakwa ‘Letter to the Editor’, Europe-Asia Studies, 68:6 (2016), p. 1103.

European Commission, ‘A stronger global actor: Bringing together the tools of Europe’s external action’, available at: https://ec.europa.eu/commission/priorities/stronger-global-actor_en.

Among earlier works of the EU and the southern dimension are Federica Bicchi, European Foreign Policy Making Toward the Mediterranean (Basingstoke: Palgrave, 2008).

An example of stark identification of such regional competition can be the following: ‘The EU put pressure on the various countries to enter into closer institutional and economic links with the EU and not with Russia…. Russia explicitly warned countries like Georgia, Moldova and Ukraine that it would be a mistake to seek closer ties with the EU and it threatened with potential counter-reactions against countries that would opt for the EU.’ Stephan Keukeleire and Irina Petrova, ‘The European Union, the Eastern Neighbourhood and Russia: Competing Regionalisms’ in Mario Telò (ed.), European Union and New Regionalism: Competing Regionalism and Global Governance in a Post-Hegemonic Era (Routledge, 2016), p. 263.

Joint Communication to the European Parliament, the Council, the European Economic and Social Committee and the Committee of the Regions. A new response to a changing Neighbourhood (May 2011), available at: https://ec.europa.eu/research/iscp/pdf/policy/com_2011_303.pdf.

Nathalie Tocci, ‘The Making of the EU Global Strategy,’ Contemporary Security Policy 37: 3 (2016), p. 461.

The European Commission began backdating its documentation with this country to include reference to the new country name that was agreed between Skopje and Athens on 12 February 2019. Commission webpages now write, for example, that ‘The Republic of North Macedonia’s application for EU membership was submitted on 26 February 2004’, even though that name was not in use at the time. See https://www.consilium.europa.eu/en/policies/enlargement/republic-north-macedonia/, last current at 26 February 2019.

European Commission, Directorate-General for Trade, Regions: Western Balkans, available at: http://ec.europa.eu/trade/creating-opportunities/bi-lateral-relations, accessed 9 August 2012.

Michael E. Smith, ‘Implementing the Global Strategy where it matters most: The EU’s credibility deficit and the European neighbourhood’, Contemporary Security Policy, 37:3, 2016, p. 446, quoting the abstract.

Contending justifications for the 2008 war and given, for example, in Rick Fawn and Robert Nalbandov, ‘The Difficulties of Knowing the Start of War in the Information Age: Russia, Georgia and the War over South Ossetia, August 2008’, European Security, Vol. 21, No. 1 (March 2012), pp. 57–91.

A highly informative study remains Roy Allison, Russia, the West, and Military Intervention (Oxford University Press, 2013). On human rights, see especially Tuomas Forsberg and Hiski Haukkala, The European Union and Russia (London: Palgrave, 2016).

Anna-Sophie Maass, EU-Russia Relations, 1999–2015: From Courtship to Confrontation (London: Routledge, 2016).

Gerard Toal, Near Abroad: Putin, the West and the Contest over Ukraine and the Caucasus (Oxford University Press, 2016), p. 275.

In a news account of Scotland-born Russia adviser to Trump, Fiona Hill, commented more widely: ‘Yet Hill and her peers have managed to craft a Russia policy that is, by any measure—sanctions, expulsions, military buildup—tougher than that of the Obama administration. Trump has not always championed this approach, but he apparently hasn’t hindered Hill and her colleagues on the National Security Council or in the State Department from doing their work. He has, in effect, sanctioned a Russia policy that is entirely at odds with his own pronouncement.’ Alexander Nazaryan, ‘Fiona Hill, Trump’s top expert on Russia, is quietly shaping a tougher U.S. policy’, Yahoo News, 25 September 2018, available at: https://www.yahoo.com/news/fiona-hill-trumps-top-expert-russia-quietly-shaping-tougher-u-s-policy-090025600.html?soc_src=hl-viewer&soc_trk=tw&guccounter=1.

Paragraph 61 refers to the ‘geopolitical expansion’ of both the EU and the NATO, and the practices of both had led to a ‘serious crisis in the relations between Russia and the Western State’. Foreign Policy Concept of the Russian Federation (approved by President of the Russian Federation Vladimir Putin on November 30, 2016), citing the official English version, available at: http://www.mid.ru/ru/foreign_policy/official_documents/-/asset_publisher/CptICkB6BZ29/content/id/2542248?p_p_id=101_INSTANCE_CptICkB6BZ29&_101_INSTANCE_CptICkB6BZ29_languageId=en_GB.

See László Bruszt and Julia Langbein, ‘Varieties of dis-embedded liberalism. EU integration strategies in the Eastern peripheries of Europe’, Journal of European Public Policy, 24: 2 (2017), pp. 297–315.

Angela M. Stent, The Limits of Partnership: U.S.-Russian Relations in the Twenty-First Century (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2015), p. 173.

Eugene B. Rumer, ‘Eurasia Letter: Will Ukraine Return to Russia?’ Foreign Policy, No. 96 (Autumn 1994), p. 143.

See Hiski Haukkala, ‘From Cooperative to Contested Europe? The Conflict in Ukraine as the Culmination of a Long-Term Crisis in EU-Russian Relations,’ Journal of Contemporary European Studies Vol. 40, No. 1 (2015), pp. 25–40. Richard Sakwa lays blame for the Ukrainian crisis overwhelmingly on Western policies of failure towards Russia and the post–Cold War European order. Sakwa, Frontline Ukraine: Crisis in the Borderlands (London: I.B. Tauris, 2016).

Christopher Hill, ‘The EU’s Capacity for Conflict Prevention’, European Foreign Affairs Review 6:3 (2001), p. 333.

See ‘EU Statement on Ukraine’, OSCE Permanent Council, 27 March, 2014, available at: PC.DEL/346/14, 27 March 2014 https://www.osce.org/pc/117093?download=true.

European Commission, ‘European Neighbourhood Policy And Enlargement Negotiations: Turkey,’ available at: https://ec.europa.eu/neighbourhood-enlargement/countries/detailed-country-information/turkey_en.

Vladimir Putin, ‘Speech for the Victory Day Celebration on 9 of May 2017’, kremlin.ru, 9 May 2017, available at: http://en.kremlin.ru/events/president/news/54467.

See, for example, Javier Argomaniz, Oldrich Bures and Christian Kaunert (eds), EU Counter-Terrorism and Intelligence: A Critical Assessment (Abingdon: Routledge, 2017); and Raphael Bossong, The Evolution of EU Counter-Terrorism: European Security Policy after 9/11 (Abingdon: Routledge, 2012).

Dominika Krois, ‘Reflections on How the EU is Handling Threats to Stability in Wider Europe’, in this volume.

Paragraph 64, available at: http://www.mid.ru/ru/foreign_policy/official_documents/-/asset_publisher/CptICkB6BZ29/content/id/2542248?p_p_id=101_INSTANCE_CptICkB6BZ29&_101_INSTANCE_CptICkB6BZ29_languageId=en_GB.

Tim Marshall, Prisoners of Geography (London: Elliott and Thompson, 2015), p. 161.

For an overview, see Laure Delcour, Shaping the Post-Soviet Space? EU Policies and Approaches to Region-Building (Abingdon: Routledge, 2011), especially Ch. 2, ‘The EU: A Latecomer in Central Asia’s Great Game’.

EEAS, ‘EU Special Representatives’, 14 June 2016, available at: https://eeas.europa.eu/headquarters/headquarters-homepage_en/3606/EU%20Special%20Representatives.

Dominika Krois, ‘Conclusion: How is the EU handling threats to stability in wider Europe?’ in this volume.

Karolina Kluczewska and Shairbek Dzhuraev, ‘The EU and Central Asia: The Nuances of an “Aided” Partnership,’ in this volume.

Allison, Roy, Russia, the West, and Military Intervention (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2013).

Argomaniz, Javier, Oldrich Bures and Christian Kaunert (eds), EU Counter-Terrorism and Intelligence: A Critical Assessment (Abingdon: Routledge, 2017).

Bicchi, Federica, European Foreign Policy Making Toward the Mediterranean (Basingstoke: Palgrave, 2008).

Biscop, Sven, ‘All or Nothing? The EU Global Strategy and Defence Policy after the Brexit’, Contemporary Security Policy 37:3 (2016), pp. 431–45.CrossRef

Bossong, Raphael, The Evolution of EU Counter-Terrorism: European Security Policy after 9/11 (Abingdon: Routledge, 2012).

Bouris, Dimitris and Tobias Schumacher, The Revised European Neighbourhood Policy: Continuity and Change in EU Foreign Policy (Palgrave Macmillan, 2018).

Bruszt, László and Julia Langbein, ‘Varieties of dis-embedded liberalism: EU integration strategies in the Eastern peripheries of Europe’, Journal of European Public Policy 24: 2 (2017), pp. 297–315.

Cross, Mai’a K. Davis, ‘The EU Global Strategy and Diplomacy’, Contemporary Security Policy 37: 3 (2016), pp. 402–13.CrossRef

Delcour, Laure, Shaping the Post-Soviet Space? EU Policies and Approaches to Region-Building (Abingdon: Routledge, 2011).

Diez, Thomas and Nathalie Tocci (eds), The EU, Promoting Regional Integration, and Conflict Resolution (Palgrave, 2017).

European Commission, ‘Regions: Western Balkans’, Directorate-General for Trade, available at: http://ec.europa.eu/trade/creating-opportunities/bi-lateral-relations, accessed 9 August 2012.

European Commission, ‘Joint Communication to the European Parliament, the Council, the European Economic and Social Committee and the Committee of the Regions. A new response to a changing Neighbourhood’, High Representative of the European Union for Foreign Affairs and Security Policy, Brussels, 25 May, 2011, available at: https://ec.europa.eu/research/iscp/pdf/policy/com_2011_303.pdf.

European Commission, ‘Security: EU strengthens response to hybrid threats’, Brussels, 6 April, 2016, available at: http://europa.eu/rapid/press-release_IP-16-1227_en.htm.

European Commission, ‘A stronger global actor: Bringing together the tools of Europe’s external action’, available at: https://ec.europa.eu/commission/priorities/stronger-global-actor_en, last accessed 29 May 2019.

European Commission, ‘European Neighbourhood Policy And Enlargement Negotiations: Turkey’, available at: https://ec.europa.eu/neighbourhood-enlargement/countries/detailed-country-information/turkey_en, last accessed 29 May 2019.

European Council, ‘The Republic of North Macedonia’, available at: https://www.consilium.europa.eu/en/policies/enlargement/republic-north-macedonia/, last accessed 29 May 2019.

European External Action Service, ‘Wider Europe – Neighbourhood: A New Framework for Relations with our Eastern and Southern Neighbours’, Commission of the European Communities, Brussels, 11 March, 2013, available at: http://eeas.europa.eu/archives/docs/enp/pdf/pdf/com03_104_en.pdf.

European External Action Service, ‘EU Special Representatives’, 14 June, 2016, available at: https://eeas.europa.eu/headquarters/headquarters-homepage_en/3606/EU%20Special%20Representatives.

European External Action Service, ‘EU Global Strategy’, available at: https://eeas.europa.eu/topics/eu-global-strategy_en, last accessed 29 May 2019.

European Union, ‘EU Statement on Ukraine’, OSCE Permanent Council, 27 March, 2014, available at: PC.DEL/346/1427, https://www.osce.org/pc/117093?download=true.

Eurostat, ‘Asylum statistics’, 24 April, 2019, available at: https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/statistics-explained/index.php/Asylum_statistics.

Fawn, Rick and Robert Nalbandov, ‘The Difficulties of Knowing the Start of War in the Information Age: Russia, Georgia and the War over South Ossetia, August 2008’, European Security 21:1 (March 2012), pp. 57–91.CrossRef

Forsberg, Tuomas and Hiski Haukkala, The European Union and Russia (Palgrave, 2016).

Haukkala, Hiski, ‘Russian Reactions to the European Neighbourhood Policy’, Problems of Post-Communism (2008), pp. 40–48.

Haukkala, Hiski, ‘From Cooperative to Contested Europe? The Conflict in Ukraine as the Culmination of a Long-Term Crisis in EU-Russian Relations’, Journal of Contemporary European Studies 40:1 (2015), pp. 25–40.

Hill, Christopher, ‘The EU’s Capacity for Conflict Prevention’, European Foreign Affairs Review 6:3 (2001), pp. 315–33.

Johansson-Nogués, Elisabeth, ‘The EU’s ontological (in)security: Stabilising the ENP area … and the EU-self?’, Cooperation and Conflict 53:4 (2018), pp. 528–44.CrossRef

Keukeleire, Stephan and Irina Petrova, ‘The European Union, the Eastern Neighbourhood and Russia: Competing Regionalisms’, in Mario Telò (ed.), European Union and New Regionalism: Competing Regionalism and Global Governance in a Post-Hegemonic Era (Routledge, 2016).

Kluczewska, Karolina and Shairbek Dzhuraev, ‘The EU and Central Asia: The Nuances of an “Aided” Partnership,’ in Rick Fawn (ed.), Securing the EU’s Eastern Flanks (Palgrave Macmillan, 2019).

Korosteleva, Elena, The European Union and its Eastern Neighbours: Towards a More Ambitious Partnership? (London: Routledge, 2012).

Krois, Dominika, ‘Conclusion: How is the EU handling threats to stability in wider Europe?’, Rick Fawn (ed.), Managing Security Threats along the EU’s Eastern Flanks (Palgrave Macmillan, 2019).

Lavenex, Sandra, ‘EU External Governance in “Wider Europe,”’ Journal of European Public Policy 11:4 (2004), pp. 680–700.CrossRef

Lavenex, Sandra and Frank Schimmelfennig, ‘EU Democracy Promotion in the Neighbourhood: From Leverage to Governance?’, in Sandra Lavenex and Frank Schimmelfennig (eds), Democracy Promotion in the EU’s Neighbourhood: From Leverage to Governance? (London: Routledge, 2017).

Maass, Anna-Sophie, EU-Russia Relations, 1999–2015: From Courtship to Confrontation (London: Routledge, 2016).

Marshall, Tim, Prisoners of Geography (London: Elliott and Thompson, 2015).

Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the Russian Federation, ‘Foreign Policy Concept of the Russian Federation (approved by President of the Russian Federation Vladimir Putin on November 30, 2016)’, 1 December, 2016, available at: http://www.mid.ru/ru/foreign_policy/official_documents/-/asset_publisher/CptICkB6BZ29/content/id/2542248?p_p_id=101_INSTANCE_CptICkB6BZ29&_101_INSTANCE_CptICkB6BZ29_languageId=en_GB.

Nazaryan, Alexander, ‘Fiona Hill, Trump’s top expert on Russia, is quietly shaping a tougher U.S. policy’, Yahoo News, 25 September, 2018, available at: https://www.yahoo.com/news/fiona-hill-trumps-top-expert-russia-quietly-shaping-tougher-u-s-policy-090025600.html?soc_src=hl-viewer&soc_trk=tw&guccounter=1.

Neuman, Marek (ed.), Democracy Promotion and the Normative Power Europe Framework: The European Union in South Eastern Europe, Eastern Europe, and Central Asia (New York: Springer, 2018).

North Atlantic Treaty Organisation, ‘Joint declaration by the President of the European Council, the President of the European Commission, and the Secretary General of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization’, 8 July, 2016, available at: https://www.nato.int/cps/en/natohq/official_texts_133163.htm.

Putin, Vladimir, ‘Speech for the Victory Day Celebration on 9 of May 2017’, kremlin.ru, 9 May, 2017, available at: http://en.kremlin.ru/events/president/news/54467.

Raquel Freire, Maria and Licínia Simão, ‘The EU’s security actorness: the case of EUMM in Georgia’, European Security 22:4 (2013), pp. 464–77.

Rumer, Eugene B., ‘Eurasia Letter: Will Ukraine Return to Russia?’, Foreign Policy No. 96 (Autumn 1994), pp. 129–44.

Sakwa, Richard, Frontline Ukraine: Crisis in the Borderlands (London: I.B. Tauris, 2016a).

Sakwa, Richard, ‘Letter to the Editor’, Europe-Asia Studies 68:6 (2016b), p. 1103.CrossRef

Simão, Licinia, The EU’s Neighbourhood Policy towards the South Caucasus (Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2018).

Smith, Michael E., ‘Implementing the Global Strategy where it matters most: The EU’s credibility deficit and the European neighbourhood’, Contemporary Security Policy 37:3 (2016), pp. 446–60.CrossRef

Stent, Angela M., The Limits of Partnership: U.S.-Russian Relations in the Twenty-First Century (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2015).

Telò, Mario (ed.), European Union and New Regionalism: Competing Regionalism and Global Governance in a Post-Hegemonic Era (Routledge, 2016).

Toal, Gerard, Near Abroad: Putin, the West and the Contest over Ukraine and the Caucasus (Oxford University Press, 2016).

Tocci, Nathalie, ‘The Making of the EU Global Strategy,’ Contemporary Security Policy 37:3 (2016), pp. 461–72.CrossRef

Whitman, Richard G. and Stefan Wolff, ‘The EU as a conflict manager? The case of Georgia and its implications’, International Affairs 86:1 (2010), pp. 87–107.CrossRef

Youngs, Richard, Europe Reset: New Directions for the EU (London: I.B. Tauris, 2017).

Title: The Price and Possibilities of Going East? The European Union and Wider Europe, the European Neighbourhood and the Eastern Partnership
Author: Rick Fawn
Publisher: Springer International Publishing
Book: Managing Security Threats along the EU’s Eastern Flanks
Print ISBN: 978-3-030-26936-4

Electronic ISBN: 978-3-030-26937-1

Copyright Year: 2020
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-26937-1_1