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Thirty (30) years of circular economy (CE) collaboration in Zimbabwe: success factors and barriers of networks in the Business Council for Sustainable Development Zimbabwe (BCSDZ)
The Business Council for Sustainable Development Zimbabwe (BCSDZ) has been a pioneering force in promoting the Circular Economy (CE) agenda in Zimbabwe for three decades. Established in 1993, the BCSDZ has played a crucial role in training, capacity building, and advocating for sustainable practices within various industrial sectors. This article delves into the organization's history, structure, and key activities, highlighting the success factors that have enabled its longevity and effectiveness. It also examines the barriers faced by the network, such as financing challenges and policy implementation issues. Through case studies and interviews, the research provides valuable insights into the dynamics of network collaboration in the context of sustainable development. The findings offer practical recommendations for enhancing the impact of similar networks and promoting CE initiatives in developing countries.
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Abstract
Over a period of 30 years from 1993 to 2023, the Business Council for Sustainable Development Zimbabwe (BCSDZ) network has implemented Circular Economy (CE) initiatives in different sectors in Zimbabwe, but has not evaluated its impact. This research aims to assess the success factors and barriers of network collaboration. Case Study design and data collection methods including questionnaires, interviews, direct observation and content analysis are used. Performance of the association is analysed over a 30-year period to derive a time-series analysis. The research concludes that the BCSDZ promotes CE through training, capacity building, workshops, demonstration projects and field visits. Success factors include a wide stakeholder network, presence of Group Standards at Multinationals and affiliation with international organisations as it is the interconnection and integration between various actors (nexus). Furthermore, international agreements and national laws, have had an effect of increasing the demand for collaboration. Barriers include lack of financing and different organisational priorities. The research concludes that in order to overcome barriers, blended financing models are required.
1 Introduction
Ever since the year 1993, the Business Council for Sustainable Development Zimbabwe (initially called the Environmental Forum of Zimbabwe) has been promoting the sustainable development agenda in Zimbabwean industry in response to the burgeoning ecological challenges affecting the world. However, over the thirty (30) years of its operation, there has been no scientific study to analyse success factors and barriers encountered in its involvement in the Circular Economy agenda.
There is scholarly confirmation that human induced anthropogenic activities are widely responsible for the environmental catastrophes confronting the planet earth (Brundtland 1987). These challenges present complexities to society and humanity (Mebratu 1998). Circular Economy (CE) breaks the pattern of environmental pollution through promoting re-use of resources instead of linear models of development (Ellen MacAthur Foundation 2012). Amongst some of the key challenges addressed by circular economy concepts includes climate change, solid waste, hazardous chemicals management, deforestation and high resource intensity. In order for CE interventions to work, there is need for training, capacity building, policy support and collaboration amongst organisations.
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“Networks of organisations” grouped together to cooperate on CE initiatives are considered as effective drivers for sustainable socio-economic development (Muzamwese 2023). Inter-organisational networks can be geographically clustered together (Mbohwa et al. 2010), whilst on the other hand they can be made up of organisations located in different parts of the world.
Key examples of regional networks include the African Roundtable on Sustainable Consumption and Production (ARSCP) as well as the Global Resource Efficient and Cleaner Production Network (RECPNet). Networks can steer industrial transformation towards improved circularity and closing the loop in the quest for sustainable development (Blasi et al. 2022; Jager and Piscisceli 2021; Leising et al. 2018; Mbohwa et al. 2010; Varrichio et al. 2012; Veleva and Bodkin 2018).
“Idiosyncratic organisations” may struggle to innovate faster in the domain of sustainable development due to lack of information, limited collaboration and inability to access finance (Muzamwese et al. 2023). In order for networks to be effective, they need good governance, financing and clear planning of CE activities.
Zimbabwe has seen the emergence of networks such as the Business Council for Sustainable Development Zimbabwe (BCSDZ) as an answer to the call for mainstreaming circularity in different economic sectors. Since its establishment in 1993, the BCSDZ has promoted CE activities in various industrial sectors such as manufacturing, mining, construction, financial services and other sectors of the economy.
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The country experiences the effects of climate change including recurrent droughts and recent extreme weather events such as Cyclone Idai. The pollution of water bodies such as Manyame River, Mukuvisi River and Lake Chivero is widely documented as a source of environmental and health concern (Mbohwa et al. 2010). In order to improve the capacity of organisations to deal with environmental sustainability challenges, networks can be effective “agents of change”. The “nexus” between stakeholders can be facilitated through inter-organisational collaboration in the domain of the Circular Economy, thereby attaining collective outcomes towards sustainable development. A “nexus” approach to sustainable development, through collaboration can attain long-term interactions amongst organisations. In recent years nexus approaches have gained global prominence (Brouwer, et al. 2024). However, there is also critique associated with the nexus approach as observed by who infers that the concept has always been implemented and is not highly novel (Wichelns 2017).
Networking and collaboration for sustainable development emerged in Zimbabwe especially after the 1992 United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED). One of the first collaborative efforts on sustainable development emerged in 1993, through the formation of a CEO led association called the Business Council for Sustainable Development Zimbabwe (BCSDZ) which at that time was referred to as the Environmental Forum of Zimbabwe (EFZ).
The BCSDZ became a Global Networking Partner of the World Business Council for Sustainable Development.1 However, despite undertaking CE networking activities, the BCSDZ has not been assessed to establish its effect on CE implementation in Zimbabwe. This research aims to assess the role of BCSDZ in promoting CE activities in Zimbabwe, determine barriers and success factors, in order to recommend strategies for enhancing its impact. The following research questions are assessed through this research:
(i)
What is the role of the Business Council for Sustainable Development Zimbabwe (BCSDZ) in promoting Circular Economy (CE) in Zimbabwe?
(ii)
Which barriers and success factors determine the sustainability of the network of the BCSDZ?
2 Literature review
2.1 The quest for a sustainable future
The current patterns of consumption and production have proven to be unsustainable in different parts of the world (Brundtland 1987). In many countries, a crisis is beckoning, which if left unresolved may result in fatal outcomes for the survival of humanity. Sustainable development is the development which meets the needs of the present generation, without compromising the needs of future generations to meet their own needs (Brundtland 1987) (Mebratu 1998). Attaining sustainability is an imperative for the survival of humanity (Aisbert et al. 2023; Baah et al. 2023; Mebratu 1998; Ghisellini et al. 2016).
Over the years, the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development in 1992 further cemented the urgency of sustainability and consequently Agenda 21 was formulated. Consequent political processes such as the World Summit on Sustainable Development (WSSD) in 2002 further strengthened the case for a sustainable future with the Johannesburg Plan of Implementation (JPOI) (Skanavis and Sarri 2004). Furthermore, in 2012 at the RIO + 20 summit, the Green Economy was touted as a possible enabler of attaining sustainable development (Houssam, et al. 2023). The eventual blueprint entitled “The Future We Want” lay a foundation for the modern day sustainability work amongst stakeholders. Key priorities to emerge from the RIO + 20 Summit, relate to a Green Economy and the Institutional Framework for attaining a Green Economy. The year 2015 also marked the finalisation and launch of the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) and the historic signing of the Paris Agreement. In addition, within the last decade, the case for CE model has escalated in both developing and developed countries as a means for attaining sustainable development. The strategic importance of CE to the ecological rescue of humanity is acknowledged as an imperative (Ellen MacAthur Foundation 2012) (Ghisellini et al. 2016).
2.2 Sustainable development through interaction amongst stakeholders, networks and collaboration
Sustainable development cannot be achieved without collaboration amongst and between stakeholders (Muzamwese 2023). Before the establishment of inter-organisational networks, many organisations operated in isolation or in what is commonly called “idiosyncrasy”. Networking and collaboration enables organisations to learn from other organisations and to adopt practices which help to unlock the firm’s maximum potential. This interaction amongst stakeholders is essential for collective decision making on dealing with burgeoning environmental challenges. In other perspectives these forms of collaboration are called Collaborative Innovative Networks (COINs) (Petzel et al. 2010). Despite being in collaborative arrangements, networks are diverse and heterogeneous (Cholez et al. 2023) (UNIDO 2011). Furthermore, success of policy interventions is determined by the context within which they operate (Bressers 2007).
2.3 Benefits of network collaboration
Networks enable organisations to have one voice on issues of sustainable development (Muzamwese et al. 2023). In addition, when engaging regulators, government and policy makers–organisations are taken more seriously when they present their issues as a group, association or network; in comparison to individual organisations (Muzamwese 2023).
Access to finance is a challenge to many organisations which operate in isolation. However, with network participation it is possible to increase the chances of access to finance through joint proposal and harnessing the economies of scale. Access to training and education opportunities is possible through network support and subsidised programmes. Therefore, organisations seeking to attain a CE can draw strength and experiences from other organisations that have gone through similar processes. This way, technology transfer can be achieved at a minimal and limited cost.
Networks establish lobbying platforms for legislative and policy measures that are conducive for the growth and development of the industrial domain. In order for this to happen, good leadership is required in networks (Petzel et al. 2010). Benefits of networks in SMEs have been studied by (Suchek and Franco 2023) and there has been sectoral applications in sectors such as plastic manufacturing (Samitthiwetcharong et al. 2023).
2.4 Network typologies in developing and transition countries
Networks vary in terms of their orientation, organisation and structure. Firstly, some networks are formed as industrial clusters within the same locality. Industrial clusters are groups of organisations which are located in geographical proximity to each other (Mbohwa et al. 2010). They cooperate with each other on ecological issues due to their geographical closeness. In recent years, clusters have evolved into more sustainable concepts such as Eco-Industrial Parks (EIPs). In industrial clusters it is possible for “industrial symbiosis” to take place between organisations in the cluster. Industrial symbiosis is a situation where one waste from another organisation becomes a raw material to another organisation. Literature effectively documents successes and failures of industrial clusters in different country contexts (Mahuni and Bonga 2016) (Mbohwa et al. 2010).
Secondly, networks can be geographically dispersed at town, city, national, regional or international level. The effect of geographical proximity on network success is documented in research by several scholars (Boschma 2005) (Fadly and Fontes 2019) (Madanhire and Mupaso 2018) (Mahuni and Bonga 2016) (Xu et al. 2023). Geographical spacing of networks has also been possible, with effective results. There are several global networks which promote CE, such as the Greening of Industry Network and the Global Resource Efficient and Cleaner Production Network (Global RECPnet).
Thirdly, networks can be supply chain networks which are based on supply chain interactions (Berlin et al. 2022). These present a novel way of interaction through supply chain networks. There is a possibility of both formal and informal networks existing and undertaking CE work. Some formal networks are established through a Charter, Constitution, registration documents, certificate of incorporation and other legal documents depending on their legal status. Other networks are merely loose associations with “no strings attached”. In both cases, networks still undertake their collaboration whether or not they are formally registered. The only major limitation that exists with unregistered networks is the fact that they may struggle to access financing for their projects due to the lack of documents proving their legal status and other administrative aspects such as audited accounts. However, there is no authoritative literature proving that formalisation results in higher impact on networking or an improved attainment of CE.
2.5 Barriers and challenges affecting networks and collaboration
Networks are constantly affected by a number of barriers that are context specific. Some of the main common barriers include the lack of adequate financing to support network activities and initiatives such as technological upgrades within member organisations. This may also be associated with the business and financing model being utilised by the network; external economic environment and ability to unlock finance from other stakeholders such as donors.
Differences in the levels of prioritisation of CE needs, is also regarded as a major barrier to the success or failure of the networks and collaboration. In collaboration, organisations do not always agree and neither do they attain homogeneity (Cholez et al. 2023) (Tura et al. 2019). For organisations that originate from multinational companies, the CE agenda is very high up on the agenda of the organisation. Therefore, they may see relevance of the sustainable business networks and the subjects that they profess to implement. For Small to Medium Sized Enterprises (SMEs), there is a less propensity to implement concepts that promote human health and safety, as they see it as a peripheral issue in comparison to survival of the business, salaries of their employees and other operational costs (Mudavanhu et al. 2013). Power dynamics and governance issues have a possible effect on the success or failure of networks in both developing and transition countries. In the case where the network is affected by tussling for control and lack of clear succession processes, there may be constant in-fighting which threatens the implementation of sustainable development initiatives by the network. Political behaviour of organisations can be very intricate and complicated (Jafariani et al. 2012)
2.6 Knowledge gaps and the missing jigsaw puzzle of network collaboration
Although many collaborative networks have been formed to facilitate dealing with sustainable development challenges, very few scientific studies have been undertaken, to research on networks. In the context of Zimbabwe, there is no research that has been undertaken to understand networks and collaboration in the context of the CE. Although many studies on inter-organisational networks cite barriers affecting network collaboration, in the context of Zimbabwe there is no research that has been done on collaborative organisations. Whilst barriers are analysed in other country contexts, it is not clear what are the context-specific barriers that affect Zimbabwean network organisations such as the Business Council for Sustainable Development Zimbabwe (BCSDZ). Furthermore, there are knowledge gaps related to the success factors that favour the proliferation of sustainable business networks. Understanding these knowledge gaps, will assist both existing and new forms of networks to overcome failure and attain a significant impact in the promotion and implementation of Circular Economy (CE). These existing knowledge gaps form a justification for undertaking this study on the experiences of the BCSDZ.
3 Materials and methods
The research was based on Case Study Research methodology, with the Business Council for Sustainable Development Zimbabwe (BCSDZ) being the research unit. The Case Study method was selected due to its ability to draw advanced analysis of depth versus breadth (Yin 2003) (Veschuren and Dooreward 2010). Within the case study, content analysis was undertaken of network documents, membership records, results of projects, programme reports, subscription schedules, constitution, event records, case study reports, monitoring and evaluation reports. Documents were evaluated from June 2023 to December 2023 and covered an extensive period of 30 years in order to assess the progression of the association. A total of fifty documents were assessed in order to understand the dynamics of the network and its operational activities. These documents are available in the database maintained by the association from 1993 to 2023. Their selection was purposive rather than systematic, as the researcher was looking for information associated with roles, activities, barriers, challenges, success factors, subscription and scale up of Circular Economy practices.
The selection of the case study of the Business Council for Sustainable Development Zimbabwe was strategic sampling and based on pre-defined criteria for selection. Firstly, consideration was given to networks which were domiciled in Africa. Further consideration was given to their topical focus, in particular undertaking activities on CE. With regards to registration of the organisation as a legal entity, both registered and unregistered networks were prospective. Another consideration was given with regard to existence of a focal point of communication. In the case of BCSDZ, this was through the Secretariat. Figure 1 explains the Case Study selection protocol.
Fig. 1
Criteria for selecting Case Study-Business Council for Sustainable Development Zimbabwe (BCSDZ)
A questionnaire was sent to the association through its Secretariat, in order to assess the implementation of CE activities by the association. The questionnaire assessed issues to do with network activities, formation, training events, capacity building, network governance, structure, legal status, barriers and success factors. The questionnaire comprised of both qualitative and quantitative questions that provided information necessary to answer the research questions. Separately there was also another questionnaire sent to network members in order to solicit their views on network participation. This questionnaire had information concerning network participation, activities, benefits of participation, implementation of CE measures, motivations, barriers, factors affecting participation, network evaluation on relevance, effectiveness, efficiency, sustainability and impact. Further exploration was undertaken on success factors and barriers to network participation. The questionnaires were designed based on the theoretical framework of Circular Economy and Sustainable Development related literature including the fundamental concepts of the Sustainability Theory (Brundtland 1987), Circular Economy (Ghisellini et al. 2016), drivers and barriers of Circular Economy models (Hina et al. 2022). Fundamentals of case study research were also adapted from (Yin 2003). The questionnaire to network had some of the following key information:
(i)
Date of establishment
(ii)
Legal status
(iii)
Type of Circular Economy activities
(iv)
Projects and programmes
(v)
Membership metrics
(vi)
Sectors covered by the network
(vii)
Mode of engagement
(viii)
Influence of regulations and policy
(ix)
Successful CE projects and programmes
(x)
Barriers to network success
(xi)
Success factors to network success
(xii)
Network governance
These information requirements on the questionnaire, required a combination of both quantitative and qualitative responses.
In order to assess the perspective of network members, a questionnaire was sent to network members, with slightly different questions but those focused on network collaboration within the same network. This was to get an independent view beyond the network secretariat. At the time of concluding this research article, the survey had been completed by 20 organisations who were members of the Business Council for Sustainable Development Zimbabwe (BCSDZ). The questionnaire to network members covered a number of different issues of focus such as.
(i)
Membership status
(ii)
Motivations and cognitions of network participation
(iii)
Factors affecting participation
(iv)
Appropriateness of services
(v)
Implementation of identified CE options
(vi)
Barriers and challenges of network participation
(vii)
Modes of communication
(viii)
Leadership and governance
(ix)
Goals, Objectives and Values
(x)
Network rating of disseminating CE measures
Direct observation of network events and activities was also undertaken. This included observation of network activities such as Sustainability Reporting, Circular Economy, Energy Efficiency and Climate change networking events by the membership. Observation of networking dynamics, content delivery and collaborative antics of the network was undertaken. The observations enabled a clear understanding of the subject matter that was under discussion by the network as well as providing a framework of tracking impact of the network activities. Observations were undertaken for both events which were held physically and those which were undertaken virtually.
Interviews were also undertaken with selected network members of the association. Interviews were for key informants who had knowledge and experience in Circular Economy related concepts. The interviews were semi-structured and were undertaken in a hybrid manner including both physical and virtual means. Interviews were transcribed in order to effectively capture findings from the interviews. The justification for undertaking interviews was based on the need to triangulate information from questionnaires and that from the document review so as to converge on reliable information. Interviews also allowed further exploratory analysis of the issues which were in the questionnaires, but could not be expanded in the questionnaire.
In order to analyse the data; trend analysis and thematic analysis was used to identify common trends on factors causing barriers and challenges to sustainable business networks. Furthermore, trend analysis and thematic analysis were used to identify common thematic patterns. Qualitative analysis of the information was undertaken using the inductive analysis approach of analysing data without prior determined theories and classifications. This was to ensure further exploratory analysis.
Due to the need to achieve reliability and validity of the data collected, there was triangulation of sources and triangulation of methods. Combining methods of questionnaires, content analysis and direct observation ensured that there was an element of cross checking with different methods in order to come up with a similar conclusion. Data was analysed using trend analysis and qualitative methodologies of CE data analysis. In order to ensure external validity of the research, case study approaches of data collection have been used in other forms of network configurations to ensure that there is a high ability to apply the findings in real world scenarios (Muzamwese 2023; Muzamwese et al. 2023; Berlin et al. 2022).
4 Results and discussion
4.1 Development of the Business Council for Sustainable Development Zimbabwe (BCSDZ)
The Business Council for Sustainable Development Zimbabwe emerged in 1993, initially being called the Environmental Forum of Zimbabwe (EFZ). The business network was formed in the aftermath of the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED) which had been concluded in Rio De Janeiro, Brazil; in the year 1992. BCSDZ was formed as a “CEO-led organisation” where corporate leaders found reason to come together and collaborate to deal with the unprecedented environmental challenges affecting the country and the world at large. The association later renamed itself to be the Business Council for Sustainable Development Zimbabwe (BCSDZ) and became the first “Global Networking Partner” of the World Business Council for Sustainable Development (WBCSD).
Throughout the years of its establishment, the BCSDZ honed structures, developed institutional capacity and promoted sustainable development initiatives within the Zimbabwean industrial sector. Members were drawn from multiple industry sectors such as mining, manufacturing, agro-processing, financial services sector, Non-Governmental Organisations (NGOs) and civil society.
4.2 Structure, legal status and formalisation
Figure 2 shows the structure and organisation of the Business Council for Sustainable Development Zimbabwe (BCSDZ). The structure of the BCSDZ is anchored on good corporate governance and division of responsibilities. The structure of the network is headed by the Chairman of the association, who is elected by Council for two maximum terms of three years each (BCSDZ 2006). A Chairman may choose to serve for only one term or even less. In addition, Chairmen can resign or retire anytime during their tenure. Assuming Chairmanship is on a voluntary basis and there is no expectation for payment in the role. The Chairman also chairs the Council of the network, which provides governance and oversight to the association. The Council can comprise of up to 12 senior representatives of member companies. However, these councillors may vary from time to time depending on their availability and commitments as well as the possibility of some of them taking on other endeavours. Participation in Council2 is on a voluntary basis, just like Chairmanship.
Fig. 2
Structure and organisation of the Business Council for Sustainable Development Zimbabwe (BCSDZ) collaborative network
In order to separate “governance” from “management” of the network, there was established a Secretariat which is involved in the day-to-day running of the association. It is headed by an Executive Director, whose role is to lead the sustainable development programming, recruit new members, engage key stakeholders, seek financing opportunities and arranging CE networking activities of the association. The Executive Director is assisted by the Secretary of the network who supports the administrative functions of the association. Both the Executive Director and the Secretary are paid individual experts of the association remunerated on a monthly basis. The Secretariat is heavily involved in the management of the BCSDZ and setting the annual agenda of the association.
One of the major functions of the Secretariat is organising, preparing and coordinating of the BCSDZ Annual Conference. The conference is a multi-stakeholder event that brings different members together to discuss sustainable development and transition towards a CE. The BCSDZ Secretariat also maintains a register of active members of the association, administers subscriptions and follows-up on membership payments. The management of payments by members is in line with the business model of the association which requires payment for network membership. Ultimately, the Secretariat reports to the Council of the BCSDZ.
In order ensure that CE topics are effectively articulated, the BCSDZ has established 10 Technical Committees (TCs) comprising of subject matter experts in the area of sustainable development. The TCs are in the domains of climate change and emissions, energy, water, waste, occupational safety and health, safe chemicals management, research and development, sustainability reporting, biodiversity and legislation. These committees lay out the agenda for the issues that the association should collaborate on; and they make recommendations to the BCSDZ secretariat.
Following the TCs, will be the General Membership of the BCSDZ which consists of a wide range of membership categories. Within the membership, exists Champions, which are a special category of corporate members. These Champions are distinguished members who have existing sustainable development initiatives within their companies such that they can be examples to other companies. Becoming a Champion Member requires approval from the BCSDZ Council.
“Corporate Members” also exist, comprising of profit-making organisations which are committed to sustainable development. In order to cater for the NGO and Civil Society category; there is membership dedicated to not-for-profit organisations. Furthermore, due to a significant number of consultants within the BCSDZ, a new category for “consultancy firms” has been established. There are further categories such as “Affiliate Members” and “Associate Members”. These may comprise other organisational forms which do not fall into the other categories, Key examples could be government departments and state-owned enterprises.
4.3 Circular economy (CE) activities
From the research undertaken it was noted that the BCSDZ undertook workshops, training, capacity building, conferences and projects in the domain of CE. Some of the events were centred on CE approaches to dealing with waste management. The association was also a strong advocate of both climate mitigation and adaptation. Training programmes undertaken by the BCSDZ were in association with external experts. Since 1993, the BCSDZ was undertaking regular workshops annually, targeting both corporate leadership and other levels of employees within companies. Specific collaboration with ministries such as Ministry of Environment, Water and Climate as well as Ministry of Energy and Power Development also enabled early adoption of climate mitigation strategies within industry. The collaboration with the ministries enabled member companies to respond better to the Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs)3 set by the country in line with the Paris Agreement.
On an annual basis, the BCSDZ undertakes an Annual Conference, bringing key stakeholders from Zimbabwean industry to discuss on issues to do with a CE. At its peak, the BCSDZ Annual conference has been able to bring experts from Switzerland, Ghana, South Africa, Uganda, Kenya and Zimbabwe. Toolkits and information from the annual conference have been effectively distributed to the entire membership as a means of knowledge transfer. Through information dissemination, the BCSDZ managed to transfer knowledge and experience on attaining the CE. Figure 3 presents the network orientation and how in instils Circular Economy practices.
Fig. 3
Business Council for Sustainable Development Zimbabwe network orientation in the context of internal and external context.
The association also organised site visits at different organisational sites in order to identify elements of best practice in CE. These site visits are a clear illustration of “learning by doing”. Their approaches deploy practical means of demonstrating a CE. Some of the key case studies where the organisation undertook site visits include visiting project sites involved in platinum mining, agricultural production, irrigation and manufacturing industries. A key example of site visits and study tours that were undertaken with a focus on CE include the site visit to PETRECOZIM–an organisation involved in the recycling of Polyethylene. The number of CE activities undertaken in the year 2023 is presented in Table 1 illustrated below. These activities are benefitting over 88 companies. The number of beneficiaries fluctuates from time to time due to the differing number of organisations joining the networks at a given time.
Table 1
Number of circular economy activities and beneficiaries of the BCSDZ in year 2023
Circular economy activity undertaken
Frequency
Number of circular economy training sessions
5
Number of circular economy projects
5
Number of CE related workshops, events, seminars and symposia
10
Number of organisations benefitting from the network
88
Figure 4 shows that the membership of the association has had an undulating pattern over the years of its existence. Whilst the research could not establish the exact number of organisations at the inception of the network in 1993, we were able to determine the number of members in the early 2000s. In the year 2002, there were 155 members in the association. Over the years there was a bit of decline in including in 2008 where 73 members existed. This also coincided with the time when Zimbabwe encountered hyperinflationary economic environment and subdued economic performance. Sustaining membership to professional bodies during the time of economic challenges is a difficult undertaking for most organisations, therefore, the decline in membership during this period. In 2015 a total of 67 members were recorded in the documented history of the BCSDZ, whereas in 2018 membership rose to 80 members. At the peak of the Covid-19 pandemic in 2021, the BCSDZ membership stood at 100 members, later on declining to 88 by the year 2023.
Fig. 4
Number of network members of the Business Council for Sustainable Development Zimbabwe (BCSDZ) for the period 2003–2023
It can be noted from the membership patterns that for sustainable business networks; membership is not permanent. Members join and leave at their own time. Various factors can explain the fluctuating patterns including differing organisational priorities, costs of subscriptions and corporate culture towards sustainability. Therefore, the main challenge for sustainable business networks is to maintain relevance so that members continue to see value in the membership. Organisations vary in terms of their priority and corporate culture. During times of company takeover, changes in management and other reasons related to corporate culture, we noted that some members needed to be re-engaged from scratch. This means that networks should always maintain high levels of communication with their members so as to facilitate constant communication.
Other factors influencing membership patterns include the economic conditions that prevail in the country or countries where the network is operational. There are situations where the economic environment can be challenging to organisations, resulting in subscription fees to networks becoming the first costs to be scrapped from the budget. Surprisingly, the BCSDZ network did not decline membership during the Covid-19 pandemic and galvanised more membership in Covid-19 than in the previous year. The use of virtual means became a key way to communicate with members. There were two (2) Annual Conferences and several workshops which were carried out online due to the incessant lockdowns. Therefore, from the results, we note that it is possible to have contrasting patterns than generally expected during pandemics—in this case a rise in membership.
4.4 Membership per sector
Figure 5 shows that membership of the BCSDZ is wide and diverse. A plethora of industrial sectors always seek to join the association depending on their technical needs in the area of CE. The drawing of members from multiple sectors is a means of resilience for the association, such that if there is a problem affecting one sector, then other sectors can still be part of the association and still contribute to the payment of the subscriptions. The highest proportion of members of the BCSDZ were drawn from the manufacturing sector4 which had 47% of the entire membership. This is due to the fact that the manufacturing sector is faced with a range of environmental challenges such as those related to wastewater, emissions, energy, and hazardous chemicals. The network is dominated by manufacturing companies as they were the bulk of the members which founded the association. Therefore, they would naturally dominate as it is a network where they had a major role in its formation along other sectors such as mining, which experienced related environmental and social challenges. Even if they have opened to other sectors such as banking and consultancy, the primary needs of the BCSDZ and what it addresses is geared for the manufacturing stakeholders.
Fig. 5
Membership by distribution sector of the Business Council for Sustainable Development Zimbabwe (BCSDZ)
Joining industry associations such as the BCSDZ is seen as a means of gaining new knowledge on CE to improve production processes. The manufacturing sector was amongst some of the sectors which are highly regulated and also one which needs to follow sustainability requirements. Within the BCSDZ there were technical committees on legislation which would stand on behalf of industry to lobby for certain legislation or discuss the possible legal reliefs for industrialists. If an organisation attempted to do these engagements idiosyncratically without pulling the energies of the network, it would have been difficult to attain results.
Consultancy firms are the second highest proportion of the membership of the BCSDZ, standing at 26% of the entire membership. However, their subscriptions are on a lower level when compared to corporate members. This is due to the fact that from time to time, consultancy members would render their services to the association and deliver keynote presentations–therefore, they are offered lower subscriptions in exchange of specialist knowledge. However, in order to increase financial viability, consultancy members should be considered as Corporate Members and pay appropriate fees as they still receive the same benefits at events such as seminars, annual conferences and field visits.
Thirdly, mining firms form a proportion of 12% of the membership of the association. This is due to the fact that Zimbabwe is endowed with mineral resources such as platinum, lithium, gold, graphite, diamonds and other mineral endowments. The sector has significant levels of environmental degradation and therefore joining the association focused on CE can assist in developing environmental rehabilitation plans.
Other essential sectors making up the BCSDZ include NGOs and Civil society (10%), Financial Services (2%), Research and Academia (1%), Standards Bodies (1%) and Power Utilities (1%). The multistakeholder approach of the BCSDZ is responsible for its long-standing success over the last 30 years. It is essential to note that the BCSDZ does not rely on any one membership group, although manufacturing is dominant. The existence of the other sectors shows that the association has wide depth and diversity. Despite the network members which exist, the BCSDZ has not grown exponentially as earlier envisaged. It has sort of maintained stable number of network members, but needs to grow exponentially so as to reach financial independence including in times of shock.
4.5 Business model, financing and subscription levels
Figure 6 illustrates the subscription levels of the BCSDZ. The subscriptions vary depending on the category of membership. The highest level of subscription is $3 000 annually and it is paid by Champion Members. These are a special group of corporate members that are leading in sustainable development and also take lead by paying higher subscriptions to ensure financial viability of the association. Corporate Members are usually profit making organisations, who are required to pay $1000 annually. Consultancy category as well as the NGO and Civil Society categories are subsidised at a fee of $100. Associate and Affiliate members usually do not pay subscriptions or alternatively, the level of subscriptions may be determined on application. Examples of organisations that may qualify for non-payng categories may include Minsitries or regulators.
Fig. 6
Subscription levels of the Business Council for Sustainable Development Zimbabwe (BCSDZ) in $USD
The BCSDZ therefore relies significantly on the payment of subscriptions in order to generate revenue for the association. Other forms of business models include donations from members. Donor support on selected projects is also possible as the BCSDZ is a not-for-profit organisation. Typical projects that have received donor support include the Climate Technology Centre and Network (CTCN) Energy and Water Efficieny audits; Inclusive Business Forum and the Green Industry Initiative.
Surviving and operating for period of 30 years since 1993, deomonstrates that the business model of the BCSDZ is effective and forward looking. The association has managed to maintain financial viability over a long period of time. One of the main reasons why the network has attained longevity has been due to good corporate governance and effective financial management of the BCSDZ financial accounts. Good corporate governance of the BCSDZ is demonstrated in its constitution BCSDZ of (2006) where succession of office bearers is mandatory. Furthermore, minutes of Annual General Meetings sampled, demonstrated succession. At the Annual General Meetings, it was observed that financial accounts were presented to members of the association. Audited accounts were also required and produced each and every year in order to provide assurance over the network financial information (sourced from document review of financial statements). The separation of management and governance of the association through Secretariat (Executive Director and Secretary) reporting to the Council showed that there was good corporate governance as well as accountability. The research brings to the fore, notions that in order for networks to succeed, they require robust administrative capabilities. Recruiting paid Secretariat with an Executive Director and Secretary, ensures that there is follow-up on payments within all members. Without a business model to sustain network activities it is clear that networks may struggle.
4.6 Case studies of sustainable development implementation in the BCSDZ
The Business Council for Sustainable Development Zimbabwe, undertakes various projects on the Circular Economy, in conjunction with a variety of stakeholders. These projects can be with WBCSD, development partners, international agencies, government and private sector. In this research, we present in Box 1 and Box 2 two examples of case studies implemented by the BCSDZ, which were implemented in conjunction with development partners. The information presented in Box 1 and Box 2 illustrates some of the actions undertaken as well as the results that were attained as a result of the initiatives.
Box 1
Green industry initiative in Zimbabwe
The BCSDZ has pursued the Green Industry initiative in Zimbabwe partnering with UNIDO Office in Zimbabwe to promote energy efficiency, waste management, safe chemical management and efficient water utilisation. The initiative included a combination of activities promoting sustainable development, such as Green Industry Study Tours, green industry training and green industry policy support. Training of industries on green industry as well as capacity building of policy makers in formulating industrial development policies with the green industry component was undertaken. Some of the key impacts of the Green Industry Initiative included the following:
• Onsite recycling of waste in selected industrial clusters reducing waste by 20%
• Chemical Leasing business model in painting where there was high chemical intensity
• ISO 50001 and ISO 14001 certification for selected enterprises in the manufacturing sector
• Reductions of specific water consumption from 16hl/hl to 6,0hl/hl in selected alcoholic beverage case study sector
• Reduction in effluent heavy metals concentration by 20% in the foundries sector
• Implementation of the hair-save technology in leather industries
• Increased uptake of RE for productive use at industrial levels e.g. 1 MW solar installation at beverage company which was a member of the BCSDZ
• Training of policy makers on Green Industry Policy
• 22 760 tonnes of carbon dioxide equivalent emission reductions form case studies
• Developed the Green Industry Policy Gap Analysis, submitted to the government
• Formulation of knowledge management and communication products for green industry, such as the energy and water management videos and the Energy and Water Manual for Zimbabwe
Box 2
Climate technology center and network (CTCN) energy and water projects
The Business Council for Sustainable Development Zimbabwe (BCSDZ) has implemented successful initiatives involving Energy and Water Audits in different industry sectors under the financing of the Climate Technology Centre and Network (CTCN). A total of 10 large scale organisations were assisted in undertaking investment grade energy audits and identification of options for energy and water efficiency. The resultant 161 options for energy and water efficiency have the potential for implemented in organisations with resultant financial, environmental and social benefits. Financial savings resulting from energy and water efficiency options exceed USD$ 4 272 304. Training of 46 experts on energy and water efficiency was undertaken in order to build local capacity. Through the CTCN consortium of UN Environment, UNIDO and the policy support of the Government of Zimbabwe through the Ministry of Environment, Water and Climate, it was possible for the BCSDZ to scale up energy and water efficiency within the network. The project has facilitated capacity building and training of industry representatives on issues of energy and water efficiency. An excerpt from the BCSDZ Secretariat states the following assessment of the CTCN project and with regards to its impact on members “The extent is yet to be determined but positive outcomes have been noted following the CTCN project. Members are implementing the recommendations from the audit and are realising positive results in terms of water and energy consumption, and reducing carbon footprint” – Extract from Interview 1
Other key activities which were undertaken by the association, included training and capacity building on Sustainability Reporting using Global Reporting Initiative (GRI) standards. The adoption of sustainability reporting practices included companies who were listed on the Zimbabwe Stock Exchange (ZSE) as well as those which were not listed. These activities facilitated evolution of organisations in four thematic phases from Strategic Avoidance Disclosure to a level of Advanced Disclosure as articulated in Fig. 7.
Fig. 7
Sustainability reporting maturity model (SRMM) and the effect of network collaboration.
4.7 Success factors influencing the BCSDZ network collaboration
In order for networks to succeed, there are several success factors which are essential. These factors may be influenced by external or internal factors. The BCSDZ success over the last 30 years has been anchored on various success factors ranging from organisational specific, country, regional and international conditions.
High level management commitment of the CEO driven network is a major reason for the successful implementation of initiatives by the BCSDZ over the last 30 years. Because the individuals involved in network activities were senior company representatives, it was easier to cascade and delegate knowledge to other levels of the organisation. New knowledge emanating from this research and insights for existing networks, pertains to the need to involve senior management in CE networks. Whilst traditional practice has been to second practitioners such as Safety, Health, Environmental and Quality Management experts, technical managers, environmental officers and other junior staff to networks–implementation remained poor in several networks because they had to escalate issues to more senior people after their experiences with networks.
Existence of governance structures within the association was a major determinant of success. Firstly, the separation of management and governance of the association enabled the Council to act as Board of the Association and the Executive Director to lead the Secretariat in day-to-day management of the BCSDZ. The Council and the Chairman, played a major role of enabling checks and balances, monitoring technical implementation of CE and also checking the financial affairs of the association. Modern forms of networks should ensure that financial management is of high priority and that funds are effectively accounted for. The strategic plan of the association presented by the Secretariat is scrutinised by the Council.
Effective business models and financing through a strong subscription base was another success factor identified by the research. Even if the BCSDZ is a not-for profit organisation, it does not survive on hand-outs. The founders of the association effectively designed its operation to be based on subscriptions from the members. The structure of the subscriptions ensures that each and every year, the members pay fees which would sustain the association for the rest of the year. Funded projects were also another source of income which ensured that the association had project activities financed by international organisations. Sponsorships received before, during and after CE events demonstrated the financial mobilisation power of the BCSDZ Secretariat. Because of a robust business model and predictable finance, the BCSDZ continued operations for the last 30 years, being able to meet its costs, pay secretariat, arrange CE events, the BCSDZ has never filed for liquidation or bankruptcy due to its viable financing model (information sourced from Annual General Meeting Minutes, financial accounts and BCSDZ Secretariat).
External Group requirements of Multinational Corporations (MNCs) were a major success factor of the network. Some of the notable organisations which were MNCs belonged to the beverages sectors, cement production, mining and tobacco processing, agro-processing. Emerging network configurations can gain significant experience from MNCs and their interactions with local organisation in developing novel CE solutions. This contextual factor of external group requirements of international companies, could be used as a success factor to facilitate accelerated adoption of CE practices.
Existence of a high number of consulting experts in the domain of Circular Economy (CE) within the association was a key determining factor. Earlier in this research paper, reference as given to the fact that consultancy organisation constituted nearly a quarter of the members of the association at 26%. This gave the BCSDZ an advantage over other CE networks because, the association was able to draw from the experiences of the experts during CE workshops, field visits and other activities initiated by the association. The arrangements with consultants was based on the fact that they would enjoy lower subscription fees in exchange of their expertise whenever a CE topic requiring capacity building of members arose.
Affiliation with international bodies such as World Business Council for Sustainable Development (WBCSD) played a very important role in catapulting the BCSDZ to the top of CE networking in Zimbabwe. Affiliations of the network to other international networks and even regional networks proved to be a strategy that wooed members. The effect of being affiliated with international and regional bodies helps to build “legitimacy” and “credibility” of the association or network. The BCSDZ drew a lot of expertise from the WBCSD which had its own toolkits and initiatives. Some of the major initiatives included the Vision 2050, Natural Capital Protocol, Action 2020, Cement Sustainability Initiative amongst other sustainable development programmes.
Succession planning was also another key step towards longevity and continuity. The BCSDZ effectively followed its constitution over the years resulting in Chairmen, Councillors, Executive Directors and other key office bearers assuming office and retiring without any qualms.
Constitutionalism was a key success factor of the network as it was built on adhering to its constitution. The aspects of constitutionalism which were very essential included, the term limits for BCSDZ leaders, undertaking mandatory meetings such as Annual General Meetings (AGMs) as well as Council Meetings. In global experiences of networks, some networks are affected or enter into demise mode due to lack of constitutionalism and the capture of the network by individuals. In the case of the BCSDZ, the association has always been greater than individuals and this is reflected in the smooth transition of power and the lack of jostling for positions. The BCSDZ had a constitution during the initial years when it was called the Environmental Forum of Zimbabwe and later on amended its constitution in 2006. Whilst the 2006 constitution has been in effect for about 17 years, amendments are now in motion to include clauses which create the office of the Vice Chairman. Subject to approval by Tax Authorities, amendments to the constitution can be finalised.
Relationships with stakeholders was a major success factor of the BCSDZ. The network had long-standing relationships with stakeholders from industry, government, international organisations, financiers, academia and other key sectors. This ensured that the association had diverse option and was not captured by any constituency or one major stakeholder group. Diverse stakeholder partnerships facilitated improved resilience and access to finance on CE projects.
High frequency of value adding activities enabled the BCSDZ to remain relevant in the CE space. The association was on average, undertaking a monthly CE activity and an Annual conference every year. Regular communication was attained through the BCSDZ Newsletter to members. In 2022, the association started to undertake update meetings on a monthly basis to ensure that there is regular communication with members.
Practicality of concepts on CE was a strategic decision of the BCSDZ. There was greater emphasis on field visits and also observing the concepts on the ground rather than just theoretical concepts. Therefore, the approach of visiting organisations and presenting practical case studies on CE facilitated better acceptance of technology and its validation from pre-existing members.
Policy support on Circular Economy related concepts accelerated the growth and development of the BCSDZ. Promulgation of the Environmental Management Act 20:27, Climate Change Response Strategy, Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs) and other associated instruments had an effect of encouraging organisations to implement CE initiatives. Therefore, associations such as the BCSDZ have managed to develop; as organisations seek knowledge on how to navigate the legal and policy terrain.
Development of Regional Strategies and continental blueprints also brings a regional push for adoption of sustainable development and CE. Southern Africa Development Community (SADC) developed a Green Economy Strategy and Action Plan for Sustainable Development, which provides a framework of attaining sustainable development in the Southern African region. At the continental level of Africa, the African Union finalised Agenda 2063 which aims to deliver inclusive and sustainable development in Africa.
4.8 Barriers and challenges to the BCSDZ collaboration network
Over the last 30 years it has been able to navigate through the barriers and challenges in order to continue being relevant. The barriers and challenges are externally induced by the contextual environment, whilst some are institutional and organisation specific. The barriers and challenges changed over time depending on the current situation prevailing, whereas some barriers remain permanent. Barriers were identified through interviews, questionnaires as well as document review of the BCSDZ.
Firstly, financing in-company improvements was a major challenge. Whilst the network is able to provide training, capacity building and information regarding the adoption of CE practices; it does not provide financial resources for organisations to invest in CE. Therefore, over the past 30 years some of the most brilliant CE ideas have not been implemented in every organisation, despite them being discussed by the networks. Addressing the financing gap of networks is essential in order to attain a CE transition.
Secondly, the other challenge facing the association from a membership perspective is the reduced of the association in the last quarter of the year due to shifts in the timeline of the Annual Conference. Scheduling is a key element for the success of networks and leaving the last quarter of the year relatively lean on activity, creates a gap within the membership, which requires resuscitation right at the beginning of the calendar year.
Following up non-paying members has been a challenge since the formation of the association. Amongst the membership, there are other members who pay and also on the other hand members who do not pay despite being invoiced for subscriptions. In cases where members do not pay in a calendar year, there has not been full implementation of recovering the subscription. The key decisive decision is whether to charge subscriptions on a pro-rata basis or waive them in the following year.
Different priorities of companies, present another barrier of network development. In a network where there are over 88 companies, there is abound to be diverse opinions and prioritisation. This means that organisations are not always going to agree on a certain way of doing things or CE priorities. The network does not aim to harmonise priorities, but to ensure that organisations implement CE within their own organisational contexts.
Policy implementation and changes in policy at a national level had a ripple effect on the success or failure of the network. Policies related to climate change, waste and environment had an effect of determining the incentive to implement a CE amongst organisations. In periods when there was stronger enforcement of policy and promulgation of regulations, there was a spurt in the number of enquiries for joining the network. Significant periods included times when the Nationally Determined Contribution (NDC) was finalised and also when there was significant enforcement of Air Quality management and licensing. The type of prospective members seeking enquiries also depended on sectors where enforcement blitz activities were being undertaken. However, when policy implementation was subdued. the demand for membership was difficult to justify.
Geographical spacing of members and the need to distribute events is a key barrier in selected situations due to the fact that the network is comprised of members dotted around the country. Whilst the association had major branches in Harare, Bulawayo, Mutare and Chiredzi; rarely did the association undertake activities at places outside the capital city, Harare. Bulawayo, the second largest City in Zimbabwe and Mutare had chances to host events; but not as frequent as Harare.
Pandemics such as the Covid-19 Pandemic have an effect on the undertaking of network events. Since its inception, the BCSDZ was anchored on physical events such as workshops, conferences and seminars. It was also one of the most significant sources of revenue. However, the Covid-19 pandemic affected the gatherings of the BCSDZ for nearly 2 years especially between 2020 and 2021. The key lesson from the barrier of pandemics, is that networks must be prepared for uncertain events which may threaten the existence of the network. Network resilience strategies are essential to prepare networks and associations for unforeseen events.
5 Conclusions
In order to answer the first Research Question “What is the role of the Business Council for Sustainable Development Zimbabwe (BCSDZ) in promoting Circular Economy (CE) in Zimbabwe?”, the research considered the activities of the BCSDZ in the period under review. The research concludes that networks such as the BCSDZ play a leading role in promoting the attainment of a CE through training, capacity building, workshops, conferences, demonstration projects and field visits. The BCSDZ disseminates CE through training, capacity building, seminars, webinars, Annual Conferences, field visits and through the BCSDZ Newsletter. Through technical committees (TCs), information is disseminated to members. The network also uses toolkits and protocols developed by the World Business Council for Sustainable Development (WBCSD). Some of the leading toolkits for information dissemination include Vision 2050, Action 2020, Cement Sustainability Initiative, Natural Capital Protocol, Below 50 campaign, amongst other initiatives. A range of success factors are responsible for the success of the BCSDZ.
In order to answer the second Research Question “Which barriers and success factors determine the sustainability of the network of the BCSDZ?”, we first considered the success factors of the collaboration and then explained the barriers. The involvement of top management of corporations, clearly made the BCSDZ be identified as a “CEO driven network collaboration”. Due to the fact that its activities were pitched at the highest level in the organisation, it was perceived with seriousness and CE measures were implemented with priority. Moreover, Nationally Determined Contributions played an important part in increasing the level of membership within the association. Secondly, international commitments and events happening at a regional and global level played an accelerating role to increase the relevance of CE networking. Key examples include the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development which led to the formation of the Environmental Forum of Zimbabwe (EFZ), later to be renamed as the Business Council for Sustainable Development Zimbabwe (BCSDZ). The Southern Africa Development Community (SADC) Green Economy Strategy and Action Plan for Sustainable Development as well as Africa’s Agenda 2063 played a key role of facilitating the increased relevance of networking amongst organisations. Other success factors include the Group Requirements of Multinational Corporations, stakeholder relationships and affiliation to international bodies such as the WBCSD. Having a wide network of members from different industrial sectors reduced the reliance on one industry sector and hence guaranteed a wide pool of subscriptions for the association. Good governance practices and adherence to constitutionalism played a major role in growing and retaining the reputation and value creation of the BCSDZ over a period of 30 years without liquidation or bankruptcy.
The progression of the BCSDZ is not without strife. Some of the major obstacles faced by the network include lack of financing to support in-company CE measures such as replacement of old production equipment, insulation of boilers, installation of renewable energy equipment and installation of energy efficient equipment. Most financing from subscriptions, donors and other sources was restricted to training, capacity building, advocacy, policy advise, seminars, webinars and annual conferences. Very little if any was allocated to individual company investment. This makes, the BCSDZ contribution to CE limited to awareness raising and information dissemination. The BCSDZ could have a bigger impact if it can partner with financiers to implement projects that have a financing component focusing on in-plant improvements. Other barriers relate to the differing culture amongst organisations, hence the level of appreciation of CE varies. Furthermore, geographical spacing of members presents logistical challenges in ensuring equitable distribution of activities amongst BCSDZ Members scattered across Zimbabwe. Pandemics such as Covid-19 presented major barriers as it was difficult to meet with members and the association undertook events virtually for 2 years without a physical meeting due to the Covid-19 pandemic. Whilst most revenue emanates from subscriptions and donor financing, this is not enough to finance in-company initiatives. The association must explore emerging financing models such as crowdfunding, consultancy model where it also charges for some of the technical advice it provides. This may allow the association to undertake consultancy assignments. In order to navigate this terrain, the BCSDZ may have to consider its not-for profit legal status and experiment with other legal status types that allow for great flexibility in fundraising. Categorisation of consultancy category in proper corporate membership category is highly recommended. The need to geographically distribute activities and have coverage in remote and marginalised areas is an imperative if the BCSDZ is to endear itself with new members and existing in areas outside the capital city. Although the BCSDZ currently has a decent, membership of 88, this can be improved with an aggressive Membership and Recruitment drive. Tapping into new industry sectors beyond the traditional manufacturing, mining and primary production sectors is a key step towards building a long lasting network. The research also draws recommendations in line with other trends in research within the domain of sustainability such as (Sala et al. 2020).
Drawing from the research presented in this study, policy makers can establish measures that promote networking and collaboration in the areas of sustainable development. Furthermore, business enterprises are recommended to affiliate to groupings that champion Circular Economy (CE) and enable the exchange best practices. In the case of the Sustainable Business Networks themselves, new ways of resource mobilisation are essential in order to facilitate long-term sustainability. Diversifying income sources is another key recommendation essential for scaling up networks and collaboration. The findings of this research have external validity and recommendations can be applied in multiple contexts. The relevance of the findings extends beyond academic discourse. This sync with the approaches adopted by other researchers such as; (Schneider et al. 2022) who have done research that transcends the scientific research community.
5.1 Future research paradigms
Future research should explore the effects of network participation on organisational culture as well as the effect of network participation on revenue of an organisation. The interaction between governance regimes on the sustainability of the network is also a possibility of further exploration. Empirical applications of business models are necessary in order to find out how to generate income in networks. Finally, the effect of legal status on the efficiency and effectiveness of a network remains under-researched and could provide necessary clues for sustainable development networks.
Declarations
Conflict of interest
On behalf of all authors, the corresponding author states that there is no conflict of interest.
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