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2019 | OriginalPaper | Chapter

Towards the Sustainable Development Goals in Africa: The African Space-Education Ecosystem for Sustainability and the Role of Educational Technologies

Authors : André Siebrits, Valentino van de Heyde

Published in: Embedding Space in African Society

Publisher: Springer International Publishing

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Abstract

The United Nations Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) encapsulate the collective desire of the world to eliminate the worst miseries of poverty and to set itself on a sustainable growth path. This chapter considers the origin of sustainable development in global discourse, and unpacks its education-related goals and targets. The specific focus is placed on tertiary education and it is argued that the SDGs depend on both regional and national strategies to succeed. Related questions of educational quality, and the role of Information and Communications Technology (ICT), are considered. The progress of the education-related SDGs is investigated, especially in relation to Internet and mobile phone penetration in Africa, and tertiary enrolment rates. ICTs, and specifically e-learning, are discussed as a means of helping the challenges related to the massification of the tertiary education sector in Africa. The way in which space supports education is considered as only one pillar of what in reality is an interrelated symbiotic relationship, which feeds back into producing space-related skills to advance the African space sector. Recommendations in light of space, education, and sustainable e-learning are discussed, and the importance of recognising the value of space in achieving the SDGs is emphasised.

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Footnotes
1
Quoted in Carl C. Gaither and Alma E. Cavazos-Gaither, Scientifically Speaking: A Dictionary of Quotations (Bristol: IOP Publishing, 2000), 199.
 
2
Sustainable Development Commission, History of SD, http://​www.​sd-commission.​org.​uk/​pages/​history_​sd.​html (accessed August 4, 2018).
 
3
United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs, United Nations Conference on the Human Environment (Stockholm Conference), https://​sustainabledevel​opment.​un.​org/​milestones/​humanenvironment​ (accessed August 4, 2018).
 
4
United Nations, Report of the United Nations Conference on the Human Environment (New York: United Nations, 1972), 45. http://​www.​un.​org/​ga/​search/​view_​doc.​asp?​symbol=​A/​CONF.​48/​14/​REV.​1 (accessed 4 August, 2018).
 
5
Robert W. Kates, Thomas M. Parris, and Anthony A. Leiserowitz, “What Is Sustainable Development? Goals, Indicators, Values, and Practice,” Environment: Science and Policy for Sustainable Development 47, no. 1 (2005): 1–13.
 
6
Ibid., 2.
 
7
Brundtland Commission, Report of the World Commission on Environment and Development: Our Common Future (New York: United Nations, 1987), 30. http://​www.​un-documents.​net/​our-common-future.​pdf (accessed 5 August, 2018).
 
8
Ibid., 7.
 
9
Sustainable Development Commission, History of SD.
 
10
The United Nations Conference on Environment and Development, The Rio Declaration on Environment and Development (New York: United Nations, 1992), 2. http://​www.​unesco.​org/​education/​pdf/​RIO_​E.​PDF (accessed 6 August, 2018).
 
11
Sustainable Development Commission, History of SD.
 
12
Jeffrey D. Sachs, “From Millennium Development Goals to Sustainable Development Goals,” Lancet, 2012, no 379: 2206.
 
13
United Nations, Background, http://​www.​un.​org/​millenniumgoals/​bkgd.​shtml (accessed August 5, 2018).
 
14
Sachs, “From Millennium Development Goals to Sustainable Development Goals,” 2206.
 
15
United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs, Transforming our world: the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development, https://​sustainabledevel​opment.​un.​org/​post2015/​transformingourw​orld (accessed August 6, 2018).
 
16
David Le Blanc, “Towards integration at last? The sustainable development goals as a network of targets,” DESA Working Paper, 2015, no. 141: 11–15.
 
17
Ibid., 3.
 
18
Ibid.
 
19
Nelson Mandela Foundation, Address by Nelson Mandela at launch of Mindset Network, July 16, 2003, http://​www.​mandela.​gov.​za/​mandela_​speeches/​2003/​030716_​mindset.​htm (accessed August 5, 2018).
 
20
Le Blanc, “Towards integration at last?,” 3.
 
21
Ibid., 6.
 
22
Ibid., 9.
 
23
Godwell Nhamo, “New Global Sustainable Development Agenda: A Focus on Africa,” Sustainable Development 25, no. 3 (2017): 7.
 
24
Ibid., 8.
 
25
African Union Commission, What is Agenda 2063?, https://​au.​int/​en/​agenda2063 (accessed August 5, 2018).
 
26
Nhamo, “New Global Sustainable Development Agenda,” 9.
 
27
United Nations Office for Outer Space Affairs, Benefits of Space: Education, 2018, http://​www.​unoosa.​org/​oosa/​en/​benefits-of-space/​education.​html (accessed August 5, 2018).
 
28
Quoted in Clayton R. Wright, Gajaraj Dhanarajan, and Sunday A. Reju, “Recurring Issues Encountered by Distance Educators in Developing and Emerging Nations,” International Review of Research in Open and Distance Learning 10, no. 1 (2009): 1–2.
 
29
United Nations, Report of the United Nations Conference on the Human Environment, 5.
 
30
Sachs, “From Millennium Development Goals to Sustainable Development Goals,” 2206.
 
31
Brundtland Commission, Report of the World Commission on Environment and Development.
 
32
United Nations, Goal 2: Achieve Universal Primary Education, http://​www.​un.​org/​millenniumgoals/​education.​shtml (accessed August 5, 2018).
 
34
Le Blanc, “Towards integration at last?,” 1.
 
35
The Economist, The 169 commandments, March 26, 2015, https://​www.​economist.​com/​leaders/​2015/​03/​26/​the-169-commandments (accessed August 5, 2018).
 
36
Nhamo, “New Global Sustainable Development Agenda,” 12.
 
37
Le Blanc, “Towards integration at last?,” 2.
 
38
The reason for the use of the term ‘tertiary education’ is because, as Mohamedbhai notes, “The terms ‘higher education’ and ‘tertiary education’ are often used interchangeably to denote post-secondary education. ‘Tertiary education’ is more encompassing and covers all post-secondary education. ‘Higher education’ normally refers to education leading to a degree. Most international statistics are in terms of tertiary education.” Goolam Mohamedbhai, “Massification in Higher Education Institutions in Africa: Causes, Consequences, and Responses,” International Journal of African Higher Education 1, no. 1 (2014): 62.
 
39
Ibid., 59.
 
40
Ibid.
 
41
Ibid., 66.
 
42
Ibid., 61–67.
 
43
Ibid., 71.
 
44
Susan Booysen, ed., Fees Must Fall: Student revolt, Decolonisation and Governance in South Africa (Johannesburg: WITS University Press, 2016). Quote from Project Muse, Fees Must Fall: Student revolt, Decolonisation and Governance in South Africa, Summary, 2018, https://​muse.​jhu.​edu/​book/​50547 (accessed August 11, 2018).
 
45
African Union Commission, Agenda 2063: The Africa We WantPopular Version (Addis Ababa: African Union, 2016), 2. https://​au.​int/​sites/​default/​files/​documents/​33126-doc-03_​popular_​version.​pdf (accessed August 7, 2018).
 
46
Ibid., 3.
 
47
Ibid., 4.
 
48
National Planning Commission, The National Development Plan, http://​www.​nationalplanning​commission.​org.​za/​Pages/​NDP.​aspx (accessed August 11, 2018).
 
49
National Planning Commission, National Development Plan 2030: Our FutureMake It Work (Pretoria: Presidency of South Africa, 2012), 326. http://​www.​nationalplanning​commission.​org.​za/​Downloads/​ndp-2030-our-future-make-it-work_​0.​pdf (accessed August 11, 2018).
 
50
Ibid., 317.
 
51
World Education Forum, Incheon Declaration and Framework for Action for the implementation of Sustainable Development Goal 4: Ensure inclusive and equitable quality education and promote lifelong learning opportunities for all, 2015, 26, http://​unesdoc.​unesco.​org/​images/​0024/​002456/​245656e.​pdf (accessed August 16, 2018).
 
52
Ibid.
 
53
Ibid., 41.
 
54
Ibid., 30.
 
55
Ibid., 8.
 
56
Ibid., 55.
 
57
Ibid.
 
58
Yvonne Hill, Laurie Lomas, and Janet MacGregor, “Students’ Perceptions of Quality in Higher Education,” Quality Assurance in Education 11, no. 1 (2003): 17.
 
59
Erica Southgate, Susan Grimes, and Jarrad Cox, “High status professions, their related degrees and the social construction of ‘quality’,” in Achieving equity and quality in higher education: Global perspectives in an era of widening participation, ed. Mahsood Shah and Jade McKay. (Cham, Switzerland: Palgrave MacMillan, 2018), 287–306.
 
60
Hill, Lomas, and MacGregor, “Students’ Perceptions of Quality in Higher Education,” 16.
 
61
Ibid., 16–18.
 
62
Ibid., 18.
 
63
Ibid., 17.
 
64
Ibid., 18–19.
 
65
Anne Gaskell and Roger Mills, “The quality and reputation of open, distance and e-learning: what are the challenges?,” Open Learning 29, no. 3 (2014): 194.
 
66
Hill, Lomas, and MacGregor, “Students’ Perceptions of Quality in Higher Education,” 17.
 
67
World Education Forum, Incheon Declaration and Framework for Action for the implementation of Sustainable Development Goal 4, 30.
 
68
Gaskell and Mills, “The quality and reputation of open, distance and e-learning,” 193.
 
69
Ibid., 198.
 
70
Mohamedbhai, “Massification in Higher Education Institutions in Africa,” 70.
 
71
Kates, Parris, and Leiserowitz, “What Is Sustainable Development?,” 3.
 
72
Magdalena Svanström, Francisco J. Lozano-García, and Debra Rowe, “Learning outcomes for sustainable development in higher education,” International Journal of Sustainability in Higher Education 9, no. 3 (2008): 340.
 
73
Ibid.
 
74
Ibid.
 
75
Ibid.
 
76
Ibid., 341.
 
77
Ibid., 342.
 
78
Ibid.
 
79
Immanuel Wallerstein, World-Systems Analysis: An Introduction (Durham: Duke University Press, 2004), 99.
 
80
Svanström, Lozano-García, and Rowe, “Learning outcomes for sustainable development in higher education,” 342.
 
81
Ibid.
 
82
Ibid., 343.
 
83
Carl Sagan, The Demon-Haunted World: Science as a Candle in the Dark (New York: Ballantine Books, 1996), 25.
 
84
Ibid., 7.
 
85
Ibid., 25.
 
86
United Nations Economic and Social Council, Progress towards the Sustainable Development Goals: Report of the Secretary-General, May 11, 2017, 7, http://​www.​un.​org/​ga/​search/​view_​doc.​asp?​symbol=​E/​2017/​66&​Lang=​E (accessed August 16, 2018).
 
87
Ibid., 7.
 
88
Ibid.
 
89
Klaus Schwab, ed., The Global Competitiveness Report 20172018 (Geneva: World Economic Forum, 2017) 269. http://​www3.​weforum.​org/​docs/​GCR2017-2018/​05FullReport/​TheGlobalCompeti​tivenessReport20​17%E2%80%932018.​pdf (accessed August 16, 2018).
 
90
United Nations Economic and Social Council, Progress towards the Sustainable Development Goals: Report of the Secretary-General, May 10, 2018, 6–7, https://​unstats.​un.​org/​sdgs/​files/​report/​2018/​secretary-general-sdg-report-2018--EN.​pdf (accessed August 16, 2018).
 
91
Ibid., 7.
 
92
United Nations, The Sustainable Development Goals Report 2018 (New York: United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs, 2018), 18. https://​unstats.​un.​org/​sdgs/​files/​report/​2018/​TheSustainableDe​velopmentGoalsRe​port2018-EN.​pdf (accessed 17 August, 2018).
 
93
Ward A. Hanson, “Satellite Internet in the Mobile Age,” New Space 4, no. 3 (2016): 139.
 
94
Ibid.
 
95
United Nations, The Sustainable Development Goals Report 2018, 18.
 
97
Hanson, “Satellite Internet in the Mobile Age,” 144.
 
98
Ibid.
 
99
Toby Shapshak, “Feature Phones Still Rule in Africa, As Smartphone Sales Slow,” Forbes, March 28, 2017, https://​www.​forbes.​com/​sites/​tobyshapshak/​2017/​03/​28/​feature-phones-still-rule-in-africa-as-smartphone-sales-slow/​#4f9a740960e5 (accessed August 13, 2018).
 
100
Techopedia Inc., Feature Phone, 2018, https://​www.​techopedia.​com/​definition/​26221/​feature-phone (accessed August 13, 2018).
 
101
Jacob Poushter, “Smartphone Ownership and Internet Usage Continues to Climb in Emerging Economies,” Pew Research Center, February 22, 2016, http://​www.​pewglobal.​org/​2016/​02/​22/​smartphone-ownership-and-internet-usage-continues-to-climb-in-emerging-economies/​ (accessed August 13, 2018).
 
102
National Planning Commission, The National Development Plan, 303–304.
 
103
World Education Forum, Incheon Declaration and Framework for Action for the implementation of Sustainable Development Goal 4, 47–48.
 
104
Mohamedbhai, “Massification in Higher Education Institutions in Africa,” p. 62.
 
105
Ibid.
 
106
Ibid.
 
107
Ibid., 64.
 
108
Ibid., 65.
 
109
Ibid., 72.
 
110
Masibulele Lunika, “Africa Must Invest in Remote Digital Education,” ITWebAfrica, September 5, 2017, http://​www.​itwebafrica.​com/​ict-and-governance/​523-africa/​239979-technology-can-solve-africas-education-crises (accessed August 6, 2018).
 
111
Daniel Gelaw Alemneh and Samantha Kelly Hastings, “Developing the ICT Infrastructure for Africa: Overview of Barriers to Harnessing the Full Power of the Internet,” Journal of Education for Library and Information Science 47, no. 1 (2006): 12.
 
112
Benin, Burkina Faso, Cape Verde Cote d’Ivoire, Democratic Republic of Congo, Ghana, Guinea, Guinea Bissau, Kenya, Mali, Mauritania, Mozambique, Niger, Nigeria, Senegal, South Sudan, Sudan, Tanzania, and The Gambia. African Virtual University, AVU at a Glance, 2018, http://​www.​avu.​org/​avuweb/​en/​avu-at-a-glance/​ (accessed August 16, 2018).
 
113
Ibid.
 
114
Maina Waruru, “Pan African University to offer virtual education,” The Pie News, November 16, 2017, https://​thepienews.​com/​news/​pan-african-university-to-have-an-odel-wing/​ (accessed August 16, 2018).
 
115
African Union, Media advisory: Official launching of the Pan African University, 2011, https://​au.​int/​sites/​default/​files/​newsevents/​mediaadvisories/​27573-ma-media_​advisory_​for_​pau_​0.​pdf (accessed August 13, 2018).
 
116
Pan African University, Our Mission, 2018, https://​pau-au.​net/​about-us/​our-mission/​ (accessed August 13, 2018).
 
117
Deutscher Akademischer Austauschdiest, Pan African University (PAU), https://​www.​daad.​de/​miniwebs/​ictunis/​fr/​29464/​index.​html (accessed August 16, 2018).
 
118
Pan African University, About Us, 2018, https://​pau-au.​net/​about-us/​ (accessed August 13, 2018).
 
119
Ibid.
 
120
Ibid.
 
121
Ibid.
 
122
eLearning Africa, Who attends?, https://​www.​elearning-africa.​com/​conference_​who.​php (accessed August 16, 2018).
 
123
eLearning Africa, About, https://​www.​elearning-africa.​com/​conference.​php (accessed August 16, 2018).
 
124
e/merge Africa, About e/merge Africa, https://​emergeafrica.​net/​about-emerge-africa/​ (accessed August 18, 2018).
 
125
African Union Commission, Agenda 2063: The Future We WantFirst Ten-Year Implementation Plan 20142023, 17.
 
126
Ibid., 17–18.
 
127
Kwame Rivers, Patrick A. Rivers, and Vanessa Hazell, “Africa and Technology in Higher Education: Trends, Challenges, and Promise,” International Journal for Innovation Education and Research 3, no. 5 (2015): 15.
 
128
Ibid., 17.
 
129
Mohammed Omer, Tina Klomsri, Matti Tedre, Iskra Popova, Marie Klingberg-Allvin, and Fatumo Osman, “E-learning Opens Door to the Global Community: Novice Users’ Experiences of E-learning in a Somali University,” MERLOT Journal of Online Learning and Teaching 11, no. 2 (2015): 267–279.
 
130
Ibid., 269.
 
131
Ibid.
 
132
Ibid.
 
133
Ibid., 277.
 
134
John K. Tarus, David Gichoya, and Alex Muumbo, “Challenges of Implementing E-Learning in Kenya: A Case of Kenyan Public Universities,” International Review of Research in Open and Distributed Learning 16, no. 1 (2015): 129
 
135
Josephine A. Larbi-Apau, Ingrid Guerra-Lopez, James L. Moseley, Timothy Spannaus, and Attila Yaprak, “Educational Technology-Related Performance of Teaching Faculty in Higher Education: Implications for eLearning Management,” Journal of Educational Technology Systems 46, no. 1 (2017): 61–79.
 
136
Ibid.
 
137
Ibid.
 
138
Paxton Zozie and Winner Dominic Chawinga, “Mapping an open digital university in Malawi: Implications for Africa,” Research in Comparative & International Education 13, no. 1 (2018): 213.
 
139
Ibid., 211–213.
 
140
Joel S. Mtebe, “Learning Management System success: Increasing Learning Management System usage in higher education in sub-Saharan Africa,” International Journal of Education and Development using Information and Communication Technology (IJEDICT) 11, no. 2 (2015): 57.
 
141
Ibid., 58.
 
142
Ibid.
 
143
Rogers Kaliisa and Michelle Picard, “A Systematic Review on Mobile Learning in Higher Education: The African Perspective,” TOJET: The Turkish Online Journal of Educational Technology 16, no. 1 (2017): 11.
 
144
Ibid.
 
145
Mtebe, “Learning Management System success,” 53–57.
 
146
United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organisation (UNESCO), Education for Sustainable Development, https://​en.​unesco.​org/​themes/​education-sustainable-development (accessed August 14, 2018).
 
147
Nancy Kanbar, “Can education for sustainable development address challenges in the Arab region? Examining business students’ attitudes and competences on education for sustainable development: a case study from Lebanon,” Discourse and Communication for Sustainable Education 3 (2012): 42.
 
148
Marc Sehrt, “Digital divide into digital opportunities: e-learning in the Developing Countries,” UN Chronicle 40, no. 4 (2003).
 
149
Gert Biesta, “Good Education in an Age of Measurement: On the Need to Reconnect with the Question of Purpose in Education,” Educational Assessment, Evaluation and Accountability (formerly: Journal of Personnel Evaluation in Education) 21, no 1. (2009): 33–46.
 
150
Valentino Van de Heyde and André Siebrits, “Students’ attitudes towards online pre-laboratory exercises for a physics extended curriculum programme,” Research in Science & Technological Education, 2018: 22.
 
151
Ibid., 7.
 
152
Cited in Ahmed D. Alharthi and Maria Spichkova, “Individual and Social Requirement Aspects of Sustainable eLearning Systems,” International Conference on Engineering Education and Research, Sydney, Australia (2016): 2.
 
153
Cited by Littlejohn in Karen Stepanyan, Allison Littlejohn, and Anoush Margaryan, “Sustainable eLearning in a Changing Landscape: A Scoping Study (SeLScope),” Report Prepared by the Higher Education Academy Supporting Sustainable eLearning Special Interest Group (2010): 46.
 
154
Ibid.
 
155
Ibid.
 
156
Ibid., 29.
 
157
Ibid., 10.
 
158
Mark Nichols, “Institutional Perspectives: The challenges of e-learning diffusion,” British Journal of Educational Technology 39, no. 4 (2008): 607.
 
159
Scaffolding is most prominently associated with the work of Gilly Salmon, see for example https://​www.​gillysalmon.​com/​five-stage-model.​html
 
160
Omer et al., “E-learning Opens Door to the Global Community,” 277.
 
161
Lee Watanabe-Crockett, Bloom’s Digital Taxonomy Verbs, Global Digital Citizen Foundation, June 11, 2015, https://​globaldigitalcit​izen.​org/​blooms-digital-taxonomy-verbs (accessed August 17, 2018).
 
162
Diane E. Eynon, Women, Economic Development, and Higher Education: Tools in the Reconstruction and Transformation of Post-Apartheid South Africa (Cham, Switzerland: Palgrave Macmillan, 2017), 20.
 
163
Sehrt, “Digital divide into digital opportunities.”
 
164
Danai Nhando, “3 Key Challenges of Implementing eLearning In Africa,” eLearning Industry, October 30, 2015, https://​elearningindustr​y.​com/​3-key-challenges-implementing-elearning-in-africa (accessed August 18, 2018).
 
165
Ibid.
 
166
United Nations Office for Outer Space Affairs (UNOOSA), European Global Navigation Satellite System and Copernicus: Supporting the Sustainable Development GoalsBuilding Blocks towards the 2030 Agenda (Vienna: United Nations, 2018). http://​www.​unoosa.​org/​res/​oosadoc/​data/​documents/​2018/​stspace/​stspace71_​0_​html/​st_​space_​71E.​pdf (accessed August 19, 2018).
 
167
Ibid., 1.
 
168
Ibid., 92.
 
169
Ibid.
 
170
African Union Commission, Agenda 2063: The Future We WantFirst Ten-Year Implementation Plan 20142023, 18.
 
171
Ibid., 92.
 
172
Ibid., 18.
 
173
National Planning Commission, National Development Plan 2030, 326.
 
174
Ibid., 327.
 
175
University of the Western Cape, Institutional Operating Plan 20162020 White Paper, 2016, 10, https://​ikamva.​uwc.​ac.​za/​content/​whitepaper.​pdf (accessed August 18, 2018).
 
176
Ibid., 47.
 
177
Omer et al., “E-learning Opens Door to the Global Community,” 269.
 
178
Sentech, VSAT, 2016, http://​www.​sentech.​co.​za/​content/​vsat (Accessed August 18, 2018).
 
179
Internet Solutions, VSAT Satellite connectivity to extend your business reach, 2018, https://​www.​is.​co.​za/​solution/​vsat/​ (accessed August 18, 2018).
 
180
Matt Williams, “This is the Year Internet from Space Gets Really Serious,” Universe Today, January 8, 2018, https://​www.​universetoday.​com/​138210/​year-internet-space-gets-really-serious/​ (accessed August 18, 2018).
 
181
Douglas Messier, “SpaceX to Launch Global Satellite Broadband Test Spacecraft on Wednesday,” Parabolic Arc, February 18, 2018, http://​www.​parabolicarc.​com/​tag/​space-norway/​ (accessed August 18, 2018).
 
182
Ibid.
 
183
Ibid.
 
184
Mike Wall, “SpaceX’s Prototype Internet Satellites Are Up and Running,” Space.com, February 22, 2018, https://​www.​space.​com/​39785-spacex-internet-satellites-starlink-constellation.​html (accessed August 18, 2018).
 
185
Williams, “This is the Year Internet from Space Gets Really Serious.”
 
186
Messier, “SpaceX to Launch Global Satellite Broadband Test Spacecraft on Wednesday.”
 
187
Greg Wyler, “We All Need Access,” OneWeb, 2018, http://​www.​oneweb.​world/​ (Accessed August 18, 2018).
 
188
Mafawez T. Alharbi, Amelia Platt, Ali H. Al-Bayatti, “Personal Learning Environment,” International Journal for e-Learning Security (IJeLS) 3, Issues 1 (2013): 281.
 
189
Padma Tata, “India launches world’s first education satellite,” New Scientist Ltd., September 20, 2004, https://​www.​newscientist.​com/​article/​dn6423-india-launches-worlds-first-education-satellite/​ (accessed August 19, 2018).
 
190
Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO), Tele-Education, 2017, https://​www.​isro.​gov.​in/​applications/​tele-education (accessed August 19, 2018).
 
191
Krishnaswamy Kasturirangan, “Space technology for humanity: A profile for the coming 50 years,” Space Policy 23 (2007): 160–161.
 
192
Ibid., 165.
 
193
Nhando, “3 Key Challenges of Implementing eLearning In Africa.”
 
194
Patience Ahimbisibwe, “Secondary students to study space science,” Daily Monitor, May 13, 2016, http://​www.​monitor.​co.​ug/​News/​National/​Secondary-students-to-study-space-science-/​688334-2714476-6fdvbg/​index.​html (accessed August 18, 2018).
 
195
Ibid.
 
197
Danielle Wood and Annalisa Weigel, “Charting the Evolution of Satellite Programs in Developing Countries—The Space Technology Ladder,” Space Policy 28 (2012): 17.
 
198
Ibid.
 
199
University of Surrey, AlSat-1 N, https://​www.​surrey.​ac.​uk/​surrey-space-centre/​missions/​alsat-1n (accessed August 18, 2018).
 
200
Peter B. de Selding, “SSTL To Build Alsat 1B Imaging Satellite in Algeria,” SpaceNews, July 10, 2014, https://​spacenews.​com/​41202sstl-to-build-alsat-1b-imaging-satellite-in-algeria/​ (accessed August 19, 2018).
 
201
Olakunle Oladosu and Etim Offiong, “Improving Space Knowledge in Africa: The ARCSSTE-E,” Space Policy 29 (2013): 154.
 
202
Ibid., 155.
 
203
Ibid., 156.
 
204
University of the Western Cape, Three SA Universities join forces to bolster SKA, https://​www.​uwc.​ac.​za/​News/​Pages/​Three-SA-universities-join-forces-to-bolster-SKA.​aspx (accessed August 19, 2018); Nicklaus Kruger, “The Sky’s No Limit: UWC Ranks In World Top 200 In Astronomy,” University of the Western Cape, August 16, 2018, https://​www.​uwc.​ac.​za/​News/​Pages/​The-Sky%E2%80%99s-No-Limit-UWC-Ranks-In-World-Top-200-In-Astronomy.​aspx (accessed August 19, 2018).
 
205
Ibid.
 
206
Ibid.
 
207
E. William Colglazier, “The Sustainable Development Goals: Roadmaps to Progress,” Science & Diplomacy—American Association for the Advancement of Science, January 5, 2018, http://​www.​sciencediplomacy​.​org/​editorial/​2018/​sdg-roadmaps (accessed August 19, 2018).
 
208
Adriana Ocampo, Louis Friedman, and John Logsdon, “Why Space Science and Exploration Benefit Everyone,” Space Policy 14 (1998): 138–139.
 
209
European Space Agency (ESA), SUNSAT (Stellenbosch University Satellite), 2002, https://​earth.​esa.​int/​web/​eoportal/​satellite-missions/​s/​sunsat (accessed August 19, 2018).
 
210
Denel Spaceteq, “From SunSpace to Spaceteq,” Denel SOC Ltd., http://​www.​spaceteq.​co.​za/​home/​ (accessed August 19, 2018).
 
211
John L. Polanksy and Mengu Cho, “A University-Based Model for Space-Related Capacity Building in Emerging Countries,” Space Policy 36 (2016): 2.
 
212
Werner Balogh, “Capacity Building in Space Technology Development: A New Initiative within the United Nations Programme on Space Applications,” Space Policy 27 (2011): 182.
 
213
Paul Boateng, “Outer Space is the Place for Africa’s Future,” Mail & Guardian Online, May 26, 2016, 1–2, https://​mg.​co.​za/​article/​2016-05-26-00-outer-space-is-the-place-for-africas-future (accessed August 19, 2018).
 
214
Ibid., 3.
 
215
Ibid., 3.
 
216
South African History Online, The Freedom Charter, August 4, 2016, http://​www.​sahistory.​org.​za/​article/​freedom-charter (accessed August 19, 2018).
 
217
Adigun Ade Abiodun, “Trends in the Global Space Arena—Impact on Africa and Africa’s Response,” Space Policy 28 (2012): 288.
 
218
Ibid., 289.
 
219
European Space Agency (ESA), AlSat-2 (Algeria Satellite-2), https://​directory.​eoportal.​org/​web/​eoportal/​satellite-missions/​content/​-/​article/​alsat-2 (accessed August 19, 2018).
 
220
https://​stellarium.​org/​ (accessed August 19, 2018).
 
221
https://​celestia.​space/​ (accessed August 19, 2018).
 
222
edX Inc., Our Story, 2018, https://​www.​edx.​org/​about-us (accessed August 19, 2018).
 
225
Jonathan Newport, “Amateur satellites: A neglected vehicle for satellite communication education,” Space Policy 21 (2005): 101–104.
 
226
For example the South African Radio Satellite Association, http://​www.​amsatsa.​org.​za/​ which aims to “promote the use of amateur satellites and to encourage active experimentation in satellite communication and allied field of experimentation”.
 
227
Newport, “Amateur satellites,” 102.
 
228
Ibid., 104.
 
229
Ibid., 103.
 
230
Boateng “Outer Space is the Place for Africa’s Future,” 2.
 
231
Ocampo, Friedman, and Logsdon, “Why Space Science and Exploration Benefit Everyone,” 138.
 
232
World Education Forum, Incheon Declaration and Framework for Action for the implementation of Sustainable Development Goal, 52.
 
233
Tessa Tan-Torres Edejer, “Disseminating health information in developing countries: the role of the internet,” BMJ 321 (2000): 798.
 
234
Zozie and Chawinga, “Mapping an open digital university in Malawi,” 223.
 
Metadata
Title
Towards the Sustainable Development Goals in Africa: The African Space-Education Ecosystem for Sustainability and the Role of Educational Technologies
Authors
André Siebrits
Valentino van de Heyde
Copyright Year
2019
DOI
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-06040-4_10