TRANSBALTICA XV: Transportation Science and Technology

Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAVs) are recognized as a leading innovation with great potential to improve a lot of processes within different industries. However, to achieve their potential, solutions for UAVs’ safe integration into aviation are needed. Aviation is the most vulnerable industry since UAVs and aircraft share the same airspace and therefore potentially catastrophic consequences if collisions occur. This paper presents an analysis of the costs of unsafe events caused by UAV operations in aviation. The research highlights that the economic effects of unsafe events are multiple and have an effect on different stakeholders in the air transport system: airlines, airports, air navigation service providers, UAV operators, etc. In addition to assessing an approximate value of the airline cost of an unsafe event caused by the UAV operations for the designed scenario, the paper outlines the challenges in quantifying certain cost categories. Identifying and assessing aircraft accident costs is useful in the safety management system both for indicating the potential financial loss, and benefits that may arise by making investments in improving the safety level. It can be expected that research results can be incorporated into the safety risk assessment process (within consequences severity), in cost-benefit analysis of UAV integration in different industries, as well as for spreading awareness about the consequences of a potential UAV-manned aircraft unsafe events.

The paper focuses on some of the signals that interfere with the proper functioning of hydraulic valves. Special attention has been given to mechanical vibration regarding the hydraulic manifold and lines. Experimental tests were carried out on a designed hydraulic bench using a hydraulic simulator as a source of harmonic vibrations acting on a hydraulic manifold. Changes in the pressure pulsation spectrum of a hydraulic system with a vibrating hydraulic manifold were analyzed. In the spectrum of pressure pulsations in a hydraulic system with a vibrating manifold, harmonic components appear with frequency values corresponding to the frequencies of external mechanical vibrations generated by the hydraulic simulator. In hydraulic lines, it leads to flexural vibration of the line, and in other valves, to vibration of their bodies. The amplitude-frequency spectrum of the speed of the hydraulic cylinder, whose operation was controlled by a vibrating proportional valve, was also analyzed. To reduce the vibration of the valve body, it was proposed to use a vibration isolator with fixed, linear characteristics. The selection of the parameters of the vibration isolator should be carried out so that its effectiveness is greatest in the vicinity of the resonance frequency of the valve spool or control element.

The article applies principles of scientific justification and methodology to effectively calculate the optimal frequency for inspections and vehicle maintenance schedules. The study analyzes outcomes, including identifying voyage cycles, measuring frequency variation effects, and the practical importance of conclusions. The study examines two key methods of predicting degradation. The first, the mean value method, focuses on calculating the average degradation value, considering all previous measurements. The second, the regression method, uses linear regression to make predictions based on the cumulative number of cycles. The frequency of measurements turned out to be a key factor affecting the accuracy of the prediction. Even minor changes in the frequency can lead to deviations in forecasts. If the frequency of measurements decreases, the risk of missed failures increases, especially at higher degradation levels. The method described in the article has the potential to be universally applied, which could extend its use beyond marine propulsion systems to other complex technical systems based on means of transport, including specialized rolling stock for automobile transport.

The aim of study is solving the problems of environmental pollution of cities with exhaust gases from road transport. The study is based on the analysis of scientific papers to determine the scope and effects of negative emissions of road transport. Ways to reduce the level of exhaust gas pollution of road transport in the city’s air are considered. The main factors influencing the pollution of urban areas with exhaust gases of vehicles, including natural and climatic, road, urban, organizational and technical are determined. The scheme of connections between the factors influencing the pollution of the territory of cities with the exhaust gases of motor transport is developed, and on the base of the method of priority in the systems, the levels of the hierarchy of the corresponding factors of influence are determined.The presented study describes the method for determining the levels of the hierarchy of factors that affect the pollution of urban areas by vehicle exhaust gases.There has been developed a model that depicts the relationship of such factors as planning and construction of cities and streets, natural and climatic factors, road conditions, organization of road traffic, technical conditions, and exhaust gas pollution. These relationships are described by a system of linear equations. This system of equations allows us to analyze the impact of various factors on the level of pollution, which makes it possible to develop measures to minimize the negative impact of road transport on the urban environment.

The article analyzes the recurrence of defects and damages on main oil pipelines, in particular corrosion, and the problem of ensuring the reliability of steel structures and pipelines used in oil and gas complexes. It has been found that the most common and dangerous operational damage to the linear parts of main oil pipelines is corrosion damage, which has the character of cavities with random depth and length, as well as random placement along the length of the pipeline. A reliable means of detecting corrosion damage is in-line diagnostics, which allows measuring the depth of each corrosion cavity with high accuracy and determining its location along the pipeline length. The length of corrosion damage is represented as a random variable with a logarithmically normal distribution law, independent of the random variable of corrosion depth. The preferred probabilistic model is the sequence of maximum corrosion depth values, which provides a probabilistic description of corrosion damage sufficiently accurate for reliability assessment and is consistent with the accepted repair technology, in which entire sections of the pipeline are replaced in severely damaged areas. Using the statistical analysis, the corrosion effects were studied at each of the selected sites as a result of diagnostics inside the pipe, and attention is drawn to the need to research and improve scientific, technical and technological developments in the field of corrosion and mechanical resistance of metal structures. The results obtained are an important contribution to the development of technical and design measures to improve the efficiency and reliability of oil and gas complexes.

The use of plastics (PA) for the construction of pumps and hydraulic cylinders allows the production of light elements with unusual shapes. The article presents the results of tribological tests of PA for use as a material for the sickle insert of an internal gear pump. The research was carried out on a ball-on-disc test stand. The influence of load and rotational speed on the friction force in the PA-steel friction pair under mixed lubrication conditions was analysed. Based on the obtained tribological test results, it was found that the friction force of PA on steel in the presence of hydraulic oil (mixed lubrication) at a rotational speed below 1000 rpm does not exceed FT = 0.5 N. The obtained friction force values are strongly dependent on the load, but the optimal friction values were obtained at a rotational speed in the range of 600–700 rpm. The obtained results are comparable to those for other elastomeric materials used, e.g. for technical seals. It was suggested that tests be conducted to assess the durability (wear intensity) and structure (porosity) of the materials of the components to gain a thorough understanding of their suitability for use in hydraulic systems. The research results indicate avenues for further exploration aimed at designing optimal inserts that meet the requirements for a prototype pump, ensuring increased efficiency under higher forcing pressures.

The EU set ambiguous targets of reducing GHG emissions by at least 55% by 2030 compared to 1990 levels and becoming carbon neutral (net zero) by 2050. There are a number of technical solutions to meet those regulations. As there is no relevant battery electric option for decarbonizing the deep-sea shipping sector, the synthetic fuels, ammonia, hydrogen and biofuels are the most realistic low-carbon alternatives. Hydrogen is particularly important and rapidly developing pillar of the energy transition, as hydrogen produced from renewable energy sources emits zero CO2.The crucial factor limiting applying hydrogen as a ship fuel might be lack of bunkering infrastructure in the ports. Due to high uncertainty of demand, investments into hydrogen bunkering infrastructure are still risky and therefore vague. The aim of research is to examine hydrogen as a ship fuel demand scenarios and evaluate capacities of various hydrogen bunkering infrastructure configurations. To achieve this aim hydrogen bunkering capacities mathematical model was designed, and case study for Klaipeda Seaport was developed. The results of the research show that operational aspects are critically important, determining technical configuration of bunkering system. These results might be used for further research involving hydrogen fuelled ship prototypes.

Authors evaluate the performance of an experimental helical cyclonic filter aimed at reducing particulate matter emissions from ships. With increasing concerns over air pollution from maritime sources, innovative solutions are essential. The helical cyclonic filter, designed with a multi-channel structure and distinct deposition zones, was tested under various operational conditions to assess its efficacy. Results indicate that the filter effectively captures larger particles (sizes 1.0 µm and above), significantly reducing their counts at the outlet. However, it is less effective in trapping smaller particles (below 0.5 µm), as evidenced by an increase in counts for sizes 0.3 µm and 0.5 µm at the outlet. This suggests that while the filter facilitates the agglomeration of smaller particles into larger ones, it does not capture them efficiently. The study highlights the need for further optimization of the filter design to improve capture efficiency for smaller particles. Integrating additional technologies, such as cold plasma or electrostatic precipitators, could enhance the overall effectiveness. Future research should also explore long-term performance and maintenance requirements in typical naval industry environments. In conclusion, the helical cyclonic has potential for reducing larger particulate emissions but requires enhancements for finer particles. Advanced research and technological integration are recommended to develop a comprehensive air quality management solution in the naval sector.

Rolling element bearings are vital in machines used for transportation. Their failure often leads to breakdowns. Diagnosing faults through vibrations and vibroacoustic signals captured by sensors is essential. Spindle vibrations stem from manufacturing defects, misalignment, and inherent vibrations. Bearing damage can affect races, rolling elements, or cages, and various tests can identify these faults. Diagnostics employ signal processing methods such as power spectrum density estimation, auto-regression moving average (ARMA), and Fast Fourier Transform (FFT), along with noise reduction techniques like minimum entropy deconvolution (MED) and spectral kurtosis. Machine learning is increasingly used to enhancing anomaly detection. Advanced methods like the Teager energy operator improve early fault detection, while deep learning models increase the accuracy of predicting bearing degradation. This paper presents a bearing test rig developed to collect data from faulty bearings, providing datasets for analisys. The setup supports research and educational purposes, allowing the study of bearing damage under various conditions. The test rig design enables quick replacement of tested elements and accommodates a wide range of rotational speeds for comprehensive diagnostics. An FFT for the vibration signal envelope was created, and frequencies and bandwidth were determined using a fast kurtogram algorithm.

The paper presents a concept for designing an assessment framework to capture the influence of weather on travel behaviour and transport-associated footprint. The primary objective of the work was to create a platform to enable the development of adaptive strategies and policies to enhance the resilience and sustainability of transportation systems in the face of climate change. The investigative process proposed in the study is twofold. Initially, it focuses on understanding the mode choice behaviour of commuters, and afterwards, it demonstrates the technique to capture transport-associated footprint. A novel integration of grey theory with the advanced analytic hierarchy process helped design a sophisticated approach to analysing mode choices, enhancing travel efficiency. Besides, the study proposes a method to rationally capture the transport footprint and the impacts of accelerated footprints on the sustainability of transport infrastructure. The study highlights the necessity of calibrating and sensitising the method using field data-based experiments to enhance accuracy.

Improving fuel economy and reducing emissions of pollutants in exhaust gases of vehicles operating in urban conditions is one of the key scientific and technical problems that are receiving significant attention. The efficiency of the internal combustion engine is largely determined by the perfection of the processes that occur during intake, mixture formation, combustion of the air-fuel mixture and exhaust gas emission. Under other equal conditions, it is estimated by the mass of the fresh charge introduced into the cylinder, which, in turn, is determined by the level of pressure losses in the intake system, the temperature of the intake air which affects its density and the backpressure in the engine exhaust system. One of the drawbacks of spark ignition engines, the power of which is regulated by throttling, is the increased fuel consumption in idle and low load modes. Thermal throttling by regulating the intake air temperature can be one of the promising methods for increasing fuel economy and reducing emissions of pollutants in exhaust gases at the above modes. The article presents the results of comparative experimental studies of mechanical throttling and the proposed thermal throttling on a Volkswagen BBY spark ignition gasoline engine in idle and low load modes, the implementation of which is possible through minor design changes in the engine intake system, including in operating conditions.

Green logistics marketing is becoming a more important aspect of the business to develop a socially responsible business, protect nature, attract new users, or penetrate a new market. The article analyzes the theoretical aspects of green logistics marketing, evaluates green logistics marketing tools, and examines the cases of green logistics marketing. The article uses the methods of scientific literature and case analysis. Green logistics marketing is a tool that helps preserve sustainability and the environment and strives for economic, social, and environmental well-being.

Ensuring the uninterrupted deployment of allied forces, equipment, and resources is essential for transporting military cargo by sea. To ensure the smooth deployment of troops of North Atlantic members in the country, the country is rapidly developing host country support (HCS) capabilities. However, when transporting heavy and oversized cargo, the local road infrastructure (often not adapted to it) becomes a problem. To avoid the mentioned problem as much as possible, it is necessary to use water transport or railways. One of the possibilities for quickly adapting to changing conditions is the digitization of processes and the continuous modernization of infrastructure. However, according to the International Maritime Organization (IMO), approximately one-third of the world’s ports must still be ready for digitization. The infrastructure capacity of the Klaipeda State Seaport for the host country’s support has not been extensively studied. As the Lithuanian army expands, the scale of the HCS also increases, so it is essential to identify the capacity gaps of the Klaipeda State Seaport and submit proposals on increasing productivity. For this reason, it is necessary to assess whether the capabilities of the Klaipeda State Seaport are sufficient to fulfil international military obligations. The article aims to determine the infrastructure capacity of the Klaipeda State Seaport to ensure the host country’s support. To achieve the article’s goal, a systematic and comparative analysis of the concepts published in the scientific literature, methods of statistical processing of secondary data, and the ARIMA method were applied.

Transport is an important element of a local, interregional, and global economy. For this reason, the condition and development of transport systems, their links, entire chains, and sectors, are systematically assessed. This article reviews the literature (by the PRISMA method on WoS database), using the keywords: “assessment”, “development”, and “transport systems”, to identify the most frequently used methods and assessed factors. Initially found 108211 records, narrowed down to 90 (including open access, English language, published 2019—May 20, 2024). Based on the research, several quantitative and qualitative methods were indicated (with the dominant role of MCDM methods, suggested as a tool for building a model allowing the comparison of transport systems) and the main groups of assessed factors (transport factors, economic factors, safety factors, social factors, political and business environment factors, and natural environmental factors, suggested as factors to be assessed in a model). The research results presented constitute the basis for building a model that enables the comparison of the transport systems of individual branches under various geopolitical conditions.

Military transportation constitutes a significant part of the logistical support. It not only involves the transportation of materials, equipment, and units within a state but also the ensuring of military convoys during their movement. When transporting a large convoy containing disproportionate equipment, it is often necessary to use the ground infrastructure of the Trans-European Transport Network. This article examines the hypothetical use of constructive simulation in solving transportation problems on the map backgrounds of the Czech Republic containing infrastructure objects. Based on predetermined scenarios, the authors investigated the use of the MASA SWORD simulator to measure the time of movement of a military convoy and assess the reaction of units equipped with artificial intelligence to obstacles. The results show that this simulator can be used to a limited extent for transportation tasks, depending on the individual parameter set when giving commands. It was also found that this simulator is suitable for the initial design of detours during the planning process at the tactical level in the event of an obstacle.

The technological aspect of military mobility is confronted with many challenges in the contemporary operating environment, stemming from both internal and external factors. The technological aspect of military mobility is influenced by the need to respond adequately and dynamically to changes in the security environment. In particular, the research has focused on the technological means of overcoming various types of obstacles in the land operating environment to ensure operational and tactical mobility. The qualitative empirical method of structured expert interviews was used to formulate the proposals. The proposed measures, in the form of a line of development of the technological aspect of mobility, respond to the challenges associated with promoting military mobility and provide a conceptual framework for the development of military mobility. Applying the line of development of the technological aspect of military mobility is therefore an option for improving the overall deployability of NATO forces and thus increasing their effectiveness.

Since 2004 March 10, after Lithuania became a member of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO), it has been committed to improving national security and close cooperation with NATO countries. Therefore, military mobility is one of the priority areas of the state. However, it is impossible to fulfil this obligation without inadequate infrastructure. Digitization of seaports is one of the most important processes to increase operational efficiency, competitiveness, and adaptability to changing circumstances. Digitization allows you to optimize seaport operations, monitor real-time changes, and integrate your transport with other parts of the transport chain. It also ensures the safety of cargo and ship movement. The cargo and goods information system (KIPIS) operates in Lithuania’s maritime sector. There are constant investments in the infrastructure of the Klaipeda State Port, i.e. 98 million in 2023 EUR in 2024–2027, and as much as 234 million is foreseen. Eur. However, military cargo transportation faces various challenges, such as the constant information change and the lack of storage space for military equipment. The article aims to assess the infrastructure of the Klaipeda State Port for the host country’s support and to make suggestions for future development. To achieve the goal, an analysis of the scientific literature on seaport activity and infrastructure was carried out based on secondary data, the existing infrastructure of Klaipeda State Ports was reviewed, and based on primary data, proposals for improving the infrastructure of Klaipeda State Port will be formulated, assessing the scale of the host country. A systematic and comparative analysis of the concepts published in the scientific literature, statistical processing, in-interview, and Kendall’s methods of expert compatibility were used to achieve the purpose and tasks of the article.

Ensuring safe transportation of people is a critical responsibility within the air transport industry. One of the primary measures to guarantee safe travel involves preventing the carriage of dangerous items onto aircraft. This is why the aviation sector invests in sophisticated security systems. The airport security control operator (SCO) is a pivotal component of these systems. The operator’s level of training and analytical skills significantly influences their ability to detect items that may jeopardize flight safety. The article discusses a novel system designed to evaluate the training level of security control operators in identifying dangerous items in passenger luggage using X-ray image analysis. This system employs a two-level fuzzy logic model to assess the operator’s proficiency in recognizing four categories of prohibited items. The individual ratings are then combined to generate an overall assessment of the operator’s training level. Extensive testing was conducted by the authors to ensure the system’s consistency and accuracy. The authors’ approach seeks to standardize and objectify the assessment of SCO training, as current systems often exhibit a high level of subjectivity in this regard. Ultimately, this initiative aims to enhance the safety and efficiency of air operations.

This systematic literature review explores the emerging concept of the twin transition within supply chain and logistics, focusing on the integration of digitization and sustainability. The review reveals that this concept, which merges digital strategies with sustainability efforts, is still in nascent stage. The twin transition approach involves greening by information technologies (IT) and greening of IT. The study analyzes fifty-eight open-access publications from the Web of Science Core Collection database, addressing three research questions. Despite the comprehensive research, only ten publications explored all research questions, pointing to gaps and opportunities for future research. However, this systematic literature review maps current literature and provides a foundation for future empirical research, emphasizing the growing importance of sustainability and digital strategies in supply chain and logistics. The limitation of focusing in-depth analysis solely on open-access publications suggests the need for broader studies.

The work summarizes the conditions of economic relations between individual subjects of economic activity regarding the logistical support of production activities of enterprises in transport hubs. Reasonable expediency of using the methodology of comprehensive assessment of service users of logistics services to improve the technical and operational indicators of production systems. Under the conditions of application of the principles of unification of transport and logistics processes, the technology of servicing cargo flows in production formations is simulated and the method of calculating the efficiency indicators of integrated enterprises is proposed. Based on the calculations, a set of measures is proposed to improve the structure of service provision in integrated transport systems. The practical implementation of the obtained results contributes to increasing the level of reliability of the existing infrastructure of production enterprises of international orientation.

One of the primary technical challenges in repurposing gas pipelines for hydrogen transport is ensuring material compatibility. In this study, the influence of absorbed hydrogen on the stressed state of the metal is investigated, and the role of hydrogen-induced stress in damage to pipeline steel is analysed. Hydrogen-induced stress in steel specimens preloaded in the elastic and plastic region is assessed using the developed technique. A change in the stress state of the steel specimen as a response to hydrogen charging and desorption depended on the type of preliminary deformation in the elastic or plastic region and hydrogen charging intensity. The role of hydrogen in the implementation of strain ageing of steels, as well as in the formation of pores and delaminations during long-term operation, is considered.

Foreign trade and economic cooperation are important factors creating interstate traffic understood as the flow of goods. Simultaneously, the element is significantly conducive to the development of transportation services. However, interactions between countries and also the overall geopolitical situation strongly determine the level of international exchange of goods. Therefore, research in this area is particularly important and requires a systematic assessment of the changes occurring in border freight traffic, which became this article’s genesis. It assessed border traffic between Poland and selected Eastern European countries. The main purpose is to show the relationship between changes in the volume and structure of border traffic and the geopolitical situation. The choice of Poland is not accidental. Its geographic location determines its important role as a transit country. Poland is located at the crossroads of the continent’s main transportation routes, connecting eastern and western Europe, as well as Scandinavian countries with the Mediterranean region. As a result, the patterns determined on this basis can be considered universal in assessing the socio-economic determinants of trade.

The article presents a study of safety management of transportation processes in railway transport based on a statistical system approach. That is, statistics of failures of safety regulations of technological processes in transport are used to make a management decision. The identification of dangerous factors and the determination of the corresponding risks of failures of technical means of controlling the movement of trains in the management of railway signaling were carried out. Special attention is paid to the introduction of the concept of “prerequisite”, or the deep cause of the accident. Thus, any event of failure of the regulation of the technological process on transport from the point of view of traffic safety is described by a sequence of four concepts, instead of three as it was traditionally. To use prerequisites in real management, it is necessary to develop a suitable classifier of prerequisites, which was done in the work. This classifier has two levels. It is the most important prerequisites that will become the focus of attention of the management of the transport organization in managing the safety of the transportation.

The war in Ukraine caused by Russian Federation military invasion on February 24, 2022, had a significant impact on configuration of airspace used by civil aviation for global air transportation. Restricted flight regions caused a significant increase in the index of airplane trajectory inefficiency that is a result of airplane trajectory re-planning to avoid entering the risky airspace. Closing full Ukrainian airspace led to the relocation of a portion of Ukrainian cargo and passenger traffic to airports in neighboring countries. Configuration of dangerous airspace directly affected global transportation flows between Europe, North America, and Asian destinations. In this paper, the evolution of air traffic caused by the war in Ukraine has been studied. Statistical analysis of European airport’s load is used to get estimation of additional traffic there since 2022. An index of monthly traffic increase is used to calculate traffic fluctuation. Also, statistical analysis of airplane trajectories with high values of trajectory inefficiency index has been used to estimate close airspace influence on particular flight connections.

The definition of a host country support internally categorizes this process into several functional areas. Transit as a key functional area of host nation support is primarily determined by the road infrastructure of alliance nation. The scientific study focused on the specifics of the road infrastructure of the Slovak Republic to ensure support by host nation support, provides an overview of the capacity and potential of strategic places and stops within the road transport of the Slovak Republic. The transit of convoys and forces is a strict and consistently organized process important to follow in view of international conventions and treaties. At the same time, the planning of transits and the timing of stops is essential for the rest of staff, drivers of vehicles in convoys. The authors have been dealing with a complex quantification of the area parameters of the checkpoints mentioned below according to the area attributes.

The Authors examine the characteristics of driver behavior, their influence on vehicle control, and the use of vehicle control as a tool for the competitiveness of transport companies, ensuring the quality of their service, and improving the environment (ecology). The increasing competence of drivers in vehicle control provides an opportunity to increase the vehicle operation performance and reduce CO2 emissions. A numerical analysis of the combustion process in the cylinder of internal combustion engine (ICE) was performed using the AVL Cruise software package. Analyzing the numerical mathematical analysis of the heat release processes in the cylinder, the change in the CO2 release of the ICE is evaluated when the vehicle mass controlled by the driver actions.

Efficient and well-functioning transport logistics is the most important factor in business success and developing competitiveness. A necessary condition is that it develops sustainably, which is important for all of humanity, and especially for future generations. To improve the operation of logistics processes, it is necessary to analyze the fundamental problems and challenges of the transport and logistics sector and to find out the possibilities of improving the cargo transportation process. This document emphasizes that the cargo transportation process can be improved with the help of information technologies and modern innovations. The study focuses on green logistics technologies, which include the use of a variety of the latest electric vehicles, alternative fuels and smart logistics systems, that is for sustainable technologies. All these measures help ensure the efficiency of the company’s operations and reduce carbon dioxide emissions. A quantitative study was carried out to evaluate the cargo transportation processes of the transport company. The questionnaire survey method was used, and Kendall’s concordance coefficient was calculated, which allows making key decisions for the improvement of the cargo transportation process of the transport company. With increasing pressure for sustainability, the trucking sector is at the forefront of an environmentally conscious evolution and is poised to create a future where economic prosperity coexists harmoniously with environmental protection.

This paper intends to analyze the threat that the Houthi’s insurgence has to the intertrade between the South Asia countries and the European Union (EU) by using sea freight. This research used a qualitative analysis approach and statistical data from bother intertrade published. The study reveals that alternatives routes caused by this crisis induced the European governments to apply Cape of Good Hope (COGH) as a safe channel for sea transport for goods from European countries in the South Asia markets and vice versa. This qualitative study applied content analysis as a tool to measure the impact of the Houthi’s threat in form of Geopolitical context, Insurance and mitigation, red sea shipping lanes and risk assessment were our indicators to analyze the impact of the Houthi’s threat on the sea freight between trade from Europe and Southeast Asia countries. With any luck, this study will help the logistics sector by serving as a roadmap for planning a more affordable alternative to regular transactions. According to this study, they adversely affect the intertrade’s outcomes. Study, Applicability, and Social Consequences: There are research gaps and warnings that should guide future investigations into supply chain hazards in many economic sectors.

The paper analyses how AI can analyse data from a variety of sources, including traffic patterns, travel times, weather conditions, and road networks, to help optimize route planning—scheduling and timetabling, and vehicle necessity. The article analyses the theoretical aspects of implementing AI tools for urban logistics processes—public transport in precise, evaluates AI based timetabling modelling, and examines the outcomes of the experiment. The article is based on the methods of scientific literature and analysis and experimental research. Research results have shown that by harnessing the power of AI, transportation professionals can make data-driven decisions faster and more accurately. Although, more extensive and elaborated set of experiments must be made.

Drones play an increasing role in various sectors of the economy. This also applies to the transport of goods, including those requiring special transport conditions, such as medical parcels. The use of drones in transport of medical parcels has many potential benefits, such as fast delivery of medicines, blood or medical samples to hard-to-reach places, time and cost savings, the possibility of saving lives in emergency situations. However, there are several challenges and limitations associated with their implementation in medical facilities. The objective of the present article is to analyze the opinions of representatives of selected medical facilities in Poland on the conditions for the implementation of drones for the transport of medical parcels. A questionnaire was elaborated, and a survey was conducted among representatives of these institutions. The respondents’ opinions on the benefits and concerns of the use of drones in the transport of medical parcels were examined. It was found that, according to the respondents, the creation of unambiguous legal framework, as well as acquiring funds for the purchase of drones may support their application by medical institutions. The results of the research may be of interest to representatives of medical facilities and enterprises involved in the transport of medical parcels.

Biometric technologies are already very important in the transport and logistics sector, and the rapid development of these innovations shows the potential applications of biometric technologies in transport and logistics companies. The authors of the research papers emphasise the key function of biometric technologies as identification and authentication. The application of biometric technologies in logistics has advantages such as high identification accuracy and security of supply chain processes, opening up opportunities for innovation and business development. The application of these technologies in a transport and logistics company may also highlight disadvantages such as high implementation costs, technological errors or adaptation difficulties and challenges. While these technologies can significantly increase the efficiency and security of the logistics sector, it is important to address threats such as cybersecurity threats, legal restrictions, etc. After an expert assessment, the most and least important strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threats were identified.

The European Parliament has introduced measures to decouple economic growth from CO2 emissions by implementing a progressively increasing CO2 tax. In 2023, the new ISO 14038:2023 standard was adopted with a key aim to significantly enhance the accounting and transparency of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, particularly in the operation of port terminals. This standard provides an essential framework for the quantification and reporting of GHG emissions. Through standardized reporting, stakeholders, including regulatory bodies, customers, and local communities, can achieve increased trust and accountability. The ISO 14038:2023 standard is especially relevant for port terminals, where precise control and evaluation of emissions are critical for achieving ecological efficiency. By thoroughly understanding emissions sources, port terminals can optimize resource usage. The enhanced efficiency in technological processes throughout the logistics chain also has the potential to economically impact the reduction of ecological tax burdens.This article focuses on the need for reliable emissions evaluation within port technological processes to assess the ecological efficiency of cargo transshipment using different technologies. It examines the practical application of the ISO 14038:2023 standard in this context, identifying potential challenges and suggesting enhancements to ensure effective implementation at the operator level. By prioritizing the control of CO2 emissions, port terminals can contribute significantly to sustainable development and environmental protection.

The paper presents an experimental framework to address transportation sustainability. Based on tangible evidence, the study hypothesised that the perception sensitivity of passengers towards selecting a mode often causes unprecedented modal shifts, burdening the environment and creating significant bearings on the transport footprint. It performed experimental research to test the hypothesis by conducting a field study in urban fringe areas of Kolkata. Analysis reveals that passengers’ mode choice perception largely depends on accessibility to available transport modes. The decision-making process while selecting a travel mode is influenced by certain parameters, including comfort, cost, convenience, travel time, and safety. Passengers who responded were mostly young adults and from diverse socio-economic groups. Even though the emission was observed to be relatively lower for the prevailing traffic, inspection in this context clarifies that it could be due to the majority of vehicles in traffic being below ten years of age and diesel-based.

Personalization is transforming mobility services, tailoring transportation to individual needs and preferences. Vulnerable road users (VRUs)—pedestrians, cyclists, the elderly, and individuals with disabilities—encounter unique urban challenges such as physical barriers and safety concerns. As cities grow, the need for efficient and inclusive mobility services becomes crucial. User-driven approaches, incorporating direct feedback, ensure solutions align with VRU needs, fostering engagement and ownership. This research examines personalization in mobility services for VRUs, and rank state-of-the-art methodologies using Technique for Order of Preference by Similarity to Ideal Solution method. It investigates VRU mobility requirements, personalization effectiveness, demographic influences, and best practices. Through a comprehensive review and case studies, this study aims to contribute to developing inclusive, user-friendly mobility services, supporting United Nations Sustainable Development Goals by promoting safety, accessibility, and inclusivity in urban mobility.

This paper explores the optimization of transport interchanges in Ukraine using simulation modelling techniques. The study focuses on two primary strategies: adjusting traffic light phases and implementing a controlled Y-shaped intersection. These methods aim to enhance traffic flow and reduce travel times, both critical for wartime logistical support and post-war recovery in Ukraine. Unlike most studies that emphasize the development and testing of new infrastructure, this research focuses on optimizing existing structures. Given Ukraine’s current situation, the allocation of financial resources to construct new interchanges is not a priority, as such funds are better directed to national defence efforts. These cost-effective solutions are feasible for cities with limited budgets. The research underscores the value of simulation modelling as a powerful tool for optimizing transport infrastructure, enabling data-driven decisions and risk mitigation, which are essential for economic recovery and long-term sustainable development.

Airports worldwide have undergone a significant transformation to provide a more efficient, secure, and enjoyable travel experience for passengers. The delays or inefficiency of aviation security checks not only reduces the effectiveness of airport security operations, but also leads to worthening of passengers’ experience and increases criminal and terrorist threats. This paper examines the issue of airport security system modelling with AnyLogic simulation to increase its efficiency, using Dublin Airport as a case study. The research aimed to identify the causes of queues in the airport security lanes and to develop recommendations for airport authority regarding optimal resources utilization at the security checkpoints. Various airport security systems were analyzed in the paper, followed with the airport’s epidemiological safety assessment through the correspondent optimization experiments in the simulation software AnyLogic.The research results indicate the necessity to implement a new strategy for improving the efficiency of the airport security procedures. It was found that the optimal security system for the case airport is Rapiscan 620XR. It can reduce the average passenger’s processing time at security checkpoint to 0.635 min. It was also determined that in case of the new security system usage the morning hours (6 am–1 pm) are the least congested with the resources utilization at 78%, while the system operates at full capacity during the afternoon and evening hours. In future research, it would be beneficial to evaluate alternative simulation tools and examine other scenarios to compare their outcomes with the results discussed in this paper.

This research explores the impact of integrating Artificial Intelligence (AI) in managing an Airline Operations Control Center (OCC) processes. Aviation industry is undergoing rapid advancements, leveraging the available AI technologies becomes paramount for enhancing operational efficiency, reducing costs, and ensuring passenger safety. This study investigates the applications of AI within the OCC process, focusing on its role in decision-making, predictive analysis, and resource optimization inside the day-to-day OCC activities. To answer the research questions, qualitative, quantitative methods and data analysis have been used. The qualitative method comprises interviews with the industry experts, data analysis of operational reports and a survey conducted with 112 participants from the operations environment. The survey and interview findings have underscored the significant benefits of incorporating AI in airline OCC processes, ultimately leading to enhanced operational performance, reduced financial impact and improved overall customer satisfaction. The research results showcase tangible improvements in decision-making, reduction of time-consuming activities, Airport Slot Coordination, Delay-Disruption management, and resource optimization in maintenance scheduling.

The paper is aimed at determining the feasibility of using energy storage in hybrid power units of domestic diesel trains. The calculations are made for the diesel-electric multiple unit DEL-02 with electric power transmission. A mathematical model of the train’s movement was developed and the simulation of the movement of the diesel-electric multiple unit DEL-02 was carried out on the section between the stations Liubotyn and Boromlya (Ukraine). According to the results of the calculations, it was found that the work of electrodynamic braking forces is 26…30% of the tangential work performed in the traction mode. The actual accumulation will be slightly lower due to energy losses during the process of charging the energy storage device. It has been determined that the most common application is the accumulation of energy during electrodynamic braking and the supply of a traction electric drive during subsequent acceleration. Another option is the use of a plug-in system. To select a rational option for the use of an energy storage device, it is necessary to determine the fuel consumption taking into account the control strategies of a hybrid powertrain.

Railway passenger operators typically seek to reduce costs by purchasing the cheapest rolling stock possible. Carriers choose already proven traction rail vehicles without sufficient consideration of environmental requirements. The choice depends on whether the railway is electrified. Depending on this, the choice is between electric multi-units (EMUS) and diesel multi-units (DMUs). Global decarbonisation and rising fossil fuel prices are leading to a choice of alternatives. In many cases, alternatives such as battery electric multi-units (BEMU) are a better economic choice than DMUs. Zero – emission (hydrogen) multi-units (ZEMU) are the least cost-effective option as they have a high potential due to the steadily decreasing price of hydrogen and the possibility of fully replacing DMUs. A ZEMU’s often has similar or even better characteristics than a DMU. In this work, an economic analysis of the different traction types has been carried out, looking at energy and fuel costs, investment, maintenance and repair costs. The economic comparison was carried out by calculating a new coefficient of comparison between traction alternatives. Gained results show that the best alternative overall is electric catenary traction and the least economically effective is hydrogen traction. These data can be used by the passenger rail operator to improve and develop its rail vehicle fleet.

In order to substantiate the design of subgrade reinforcement, an analysis of its methods was conducted. An alternative reinforcement option, one that is based on strengthening the ballast layer, was considered. Finite-element models for a two-lane subgrade, that consider geometric and deformation parameters, were created. The developed spatial model is based on real subgrade properties of the two-way railway stage that were obtained during the construction of existing embankment. A numerical analysis for non-reinforced option, as well as for concrete-reinforced option was conducted. The components of stress-strain state for both options were analyzed and their characteristic values were compared. The results of comparative analysis show a decrease by 1.1…1.13 times in vertical displacements, and by 2.6…2.8 times in compressive horizontal stresses. It is proven, that implementing a reinforced concrete strengthening of the ballast layer significantly improves the overall stress-strain state of the embankment, as it absorbs a significant part of the locomotive load.

This article highlights the main problems of the suburban passenger complex. Authors propose measures to improve the technology of organizing suburban transportation depending on the movement interval and distance of passenger transportation on the railways of Ukraine. The problems of the passenger suburban complex require the search for new ways of increasing the efficiency of suburban passenger rail transportation in modern conditions. Suburban passenger trains follow short, medium and long distances. In order to improve the number of people in trains of suburban electric multi-units (EMUs), it is necessary to predict their possible maximum number of people with different options for planning threads on the train schedule and the characteristics of these trains. In peak periods, it is suggested to first lay trains that follow short distances, and then to longer ones. With this method of routing trains on the traffic schedule, passengers of nearby zones fill not trains that follow to long-distance zones. This leads to the improvement of travel conditions for passengers in long-distance zones. During periods of decline in passenger traffic, it is proposed to use a zonal non-parallel schedule of train traffic, while it is necessary to first lay trains that follow long distances, and then short ones. The determined regularities of the departure of short- and medium-distance suburban trains are used to assess the effectiveness of the pendulum schedule of trains in suburban traffic.

Improved operational performance of international rail systems necessitates exploring the use of modern bogie designs. Therefore, there was studied the possibility of using the Y25 bogies under flat wagons, which are intended for international transportation. An important aspect of cargo transportation in international communication is the minimization of their delivery time. In this regard, the main parameters of the disc brake were calculated. At the next stage, the indicators of the flat wagon dynamics were researched. Variants of containers transport in a loaded state and in an empty state were considered. The flat wagon running for both studied options was rated as “excellent”. The strength of the flat wagon frame was calculated. It was found that the design stresses are by 15% lower than those arising in the flat wagon structure on the 18–100 bogies. The conducted research will contribute to increase the efficiency of modern and highly efficient rail vehicles design.

The density of railways in the NATO countries of the Baltic region is analyzed in this article. According to the author, the density of railways must be assessed not only in terms of the area of the country, but also in terms of the number of inhabitants and the GDP of the country. The methodology proposed by the author is described for such an assessment. First, the cumulative density of the railways of 1520 mm and 1435 mm is analyzed, then the density of the railways of 1435 mm, which is relevant in accordance with the requirements of NATO technical documents. The results of the study show that the low total density of the railways of 1520 mm and 1435 mm in terms of area is usually justified by the low socio-economic potential of the country. However, the gap with a low density of 1435 mm does not justify this argument.

The urgency of introducing high-speed train traffic in international traffic has increased after the development of the Concept and Program for the Reconstruction of Railway Transport of Ukraine and the adoption by the Cabinet of Ministers of Ukraine of the Program for the Creation and Operation of the National Network of International Transport Corridors. With the participation of experts from the company “Systra” and specialists of Ukrzaliznytsia, a study was conducted on the introduction of high-speed train traffic on the railways of Ukraine. The plan of the railway track is the main factor on which the continuity, smoothness, safety and comfort of passengers depends. When designing a plan for a high-speed line, three main directions were applied: designing a plan on specialized international transport corridors; designing a plan with simultaneous movement of trains; and bringing the plan of the existing railways for accelerated and high-speed traffic. When solving these tasks, following issues were taken into account: the latest achievements of science and technology; predict the economic costs of resources; to have in mind industrial methods of construction; ensure safety, continuity, smoothness of train movement and passenger comfort; to ensure environmental protection; to ensure the safety of employees.

The Authors analyse the impact of the project “Rail Baltica” on the development of high-speed railways in Lithuania. The purpose of the research – to assess the need for high-speed railways and suggest the most rational operational model for high-speed railways in Lithuania. In developing the traffic of high-speed railways, many railway infrastructure managers are faced with the choice of rational operational model for train traffic. The Authors suggest solving this problem by applying Multi-Criteria Decision Making methods. In order to determine the compatibility of expert opinions the Kendall’s rank correlation method was used. As a result of this study, the Exclusive exploatation model for train traffic management was selected for Lithuanian Railways.

Reducing greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions is one of the basic objectives of the EU. The transport sector is also obliged to contribute to this goal. EU countries use various political and economic tools to achieve this goal - political approaches, strategies, direct support for the procurement of a new electric vehicle, etc. Since a significant part of GHG from inland transport are produced by road transport, these instruments are mainly aimed at reducing GHG emissions in this sector. The consequence is that in countries where diesel traction prevails, the production of GHG emissions has a stagnant or growing character if transport performance increases. The total production of these emissions in the transport sector has been growing in the Slovak Republic in recent years, while 98% of this production is caused by road transport. In passenger rail transport, 73% of transport performances are carried out on electrified lines, while the share of electrified lines is 44% of the total railway network. Decarbonization in railway passenger transport can be achieved in two ways: electrification or the use of alternative energy sources. The Author contribution and scientific novelty in this study is examining two basic alternatives: electrification and battery-powered electric propulsion on diesel traction in Slovakia from a CO2eq emissions production point of view.

The paper presents the problem of measuring noise emissions at the wheel-rail interface using the method developed Dynamic Opto-Acoustic Method for Railway Superstructure Emission Noise Assessment by the project HLUKOS. Based on the theory of rail vehicle noise, it presents the state of the art of the research project in terms of requirements for data acquisition equipment (microphones placed in the undercarriage of rail vehicles), evaluation of the captured data and their subsequent application. It presents the results of the correlation between explanatory variables and the testing of mixed regression models. It also draws attention to the not entirely favourable results of the analysis of the measured data so far and the need to categorise the data according to operational and infrastructure criteria.

Investment in and modernization of public transport systems have improved the quality of life for citizens in several cities worldwide. However, efficient mobility requires balanced management of different public transport modes. This study assesses the performance of train and bus systems in Algeria to determine which mode is more attractive to passengers and to identify the factors influencing their modal choices. The methodology used in this article combines data from the National Office of Statistics (ONS), the National Railway Transport Company (SNTF), the Algerian Bus Station Management Company (SOGRAL), and a qualitative passenger survey. The analysis is structured into three parts. The first part presents the annual train passengers’ number. The second part, compares passengers’ numbers for train and bus on the same itinerary. While the third part evaluates the two transportation means based on five key performance indicators: accessibility, ticket price, comfort and safety, reliability, and travel time. Results revealed a significant imbalance between the number of passengers using the train and those using the bus, with bus users far outnumbering train users. Furthermore, travel time and operating hours emerge as the primary determinants of passengers’ modal preferences. The study concludes with recommendations to achieve a balance between these two modes of transport and to enhance their service quality.

This research is focused on the assessment of running properties of a rail multiple unit (MU), which an original diesel powertrain has been changed by a hydrogen powertrain. There are analysed the output quantities in a wheel/rail contact and their influence to running safety. A rail MU is evaluated, which is produced by a commercial manufactured and with newly designed powertrain includes hydrogen fuel cells. This modification of the solved MU means a significant change of its structure. The vehicle itself consists of three articles. The changes mainly related with the position of a centre of gravity of individual articles, their masses as well as moments of inertia. The research has been conducted in a commercial multibody software Simpack. A multibody model of the solved MU consists of rigid bodies and other modelling elements. A real railway track section in Slovakia has been chosen for simulation computations. Based on the findings and obtained results, the modified MU equipped with the hydrogen powertrain operation is within the valid safety criteria. However, the reached axleload of this vehicle does not meet the required values.

This study investigates the effects of active roll control on tyre wear in electric vehicles. The increased mass due to the installed batteries and the resulting higher vertical and lateral forces during dynamic manoeuvres contribute significantly to tyre wear in electric vehicles. In this study, advanced mathematical modelling is used to investigate these effects in a high-fidelity simulation environment. A series of open-loop and closed-loop tests were used to analyse the distribution of tyre forces and the resulting wear patterns. The results suggest that active roll control can significantly increase load-induced tyre wear, particularly on the outer wheel where the forces are most pronounced. This work provides insights into the challenges that engineers will have to solve when developing new platforms for electric vehicles.

To enhance the bending crashworthiness performance of thin-walled structures, novel bioinspired tubes based on shrimp tails are proposed. Four structures were designed and evaluated numerically using a three-point bending test by means of the finite element method. All structures were constructed with aluminum 6063-T6. The accuracy of the results was ensured by an initial experimental validation. Additionally, a more realistic simulation was achieved by considering Johnson-Cook failure models. According to the results, all bioinspired thin-walled structures (BTWS) exhibited better crashworthiness performance compared to typical circular tubes. However, the best performance was achieved by the tube BC-04, with a crush force efficiency of 0.837. Finally, from our findings, a novel design of side-door beam for automotive safety is proposed.

This study investigates the dynamic interaction between an elastically deformed working body of a ripper-pick and soil. The focus is on enhancing labor productivity in earthmoving operations by understanding and leveraging the energy accumulation and release mechanisms in soil cutting processes. A theoretical framework is developed based on the kinetic energy theorem, which describes the energy balance within the “elastically deformed executive element (EDEE) of the ripper-pick-soil” system. The research derives an expression for the force required to overcome soil resistance, incorporating factors such as cutting depth, tip width, console length, and soil properties. Analytical results demonstrate that soil resistance to cutting increases proportionally with cutting depth and parabolically with tip width, while decreasing rapidly with changes in console thickness. The study identifies optimal geometrical parameters for EDEE tips, highlighting that effective soil cutting is achieved when the EDEE length is half the tip width and the console thickness is close to 10% of the tip width. These findings offer the recommendations for designing efficient, safe, and durable working bodies for ripper-picks, providing significant implications for improving the productivity and efficiency of earthmoving machinery.

The article provides a theoretical rationale for the construction of bypasses in settlements using the hierarchical analysis method. The hierarchical analysis method is a systematic procedure for hierarchically presenting elements that define the essence of the problem. The method is based on decomposing the problem into simpler components and further processing judgments at each hierarchical level of pairwise comparisons. As a result, we obtain the relative degree (intensity) of interaction of elements at the given hierarchical level or the “importance” (preference) of some elements relative to others. These judgments are given a numerical assessment. Statistical characteristics (mathematical estimation, dispersion of parameters of traffic flows, density and distribution function of movement time intervals, etc.) are widely used for assessing the state of traffic flow in justifying bypasses in settlements. The fundamental commonly used characteristics of the state of traffic flow in justifying bypasses in settlements are the density distribution function of movement time intervals of vehicles in the flow.

This manuscript focuses on the impact of structural-technical and geometric parameters of critical road infrastructure on the effectiveness of crisis management. Using the identification and analysis of threats that may induce specific demands on the infrastructure during crisis scenarios or necessitate the declaration of one of the crisis states. A significant section is devoted to scenarios that require non-standard transport solutions, such as military resource and natural disaster response. This approach aims to strengthen the ability to react quickly and effectively in crisis situations. With a view to minimising the impact on society and the economy by ensuring continuity in the service provision of both ordinary and specific needs. Risk mapping involved the application of a preliminary and detailed multi-criteria risk analysis to identify and score potential threats to critical road infrastructure. This process helped to select 14 key threats out of a total of 72, with an emphasis on those that have a high level of risk or demand non-standard solutions with specific parameters. This resulted in threats related to the need to move large and heavy loads that are significant for military and earthmoving assets. In these cases, there is an acute need for these assets to cope with the crisis situation. This creates a need for an efficient and secure infrastructure. Due to the transnational scale of the critical road infrastructure of the TEN-T network, elements of the road infrastructure need constant attention to minimise possible negative impacts. The identification of specific parameters of road critical infrastructure is key for dealing with crisis situations. A detailed description of these parameters and the use of comparative methods will enable an efficient search for alternative routes that respond to the specific requirements of the emerging crisis situation.

The efficiency of timber transport is determined by the availability and quality of forest roads, the rhythm of work and high speeds of timber transport vehicles. A significant part of the harvested timber is transported on unpaved soil roads, the condition of which directly depends on weather and climate conditions, bearing capacity and durability of the roads. The article presents methods for strengthening various types of soil. Organic complex stabilizers, inorganic binders and by-products of the chemical industry were used as materials for strengthening. The design features of road structures made of stabilized soils are considered.

Pedestrians are the most vulnerable and heterogeneous category of traffic participants requiring special attention. A very important aspect of traffic safety is their behavior at pedestrian crossings. In this paper, the research centers on signalized pedestrian crossings without countdown displays with a sample related to the female gender. The research is focused on start-up time using the method of comparative analysis in five different cities. For this purpose, an integrated MCDM (Multi-criteria decision-making) model consisting of Fuzzy FUCOM (Full Consistency Method) and MARCOS (Measurement Alternatives and Ranking according to COmpromise Solution) was applied. Additionally, a comparative and sensitivity analysis were performed. The research results indicate that female pedestrians in the city of Bijeljina have the best start-up time. Also, some additional tests of validation have been performed.

In the context of managing the vast amount of data that pertains to processes in the AECO (Architecture, Engineering, Construction, and Operation) industry, technologically advanced methods such as Internet-of-Things (IoT) and Big Data run alongside Building Information Modeling (BIM), a methodological approach that is also booming in the transportation infrastructure sector. This expansion is driven by the increasing necessity for BIM in the design and management of smart cities which lies in the digitization of its urban fabric, encompassing both its architectural and infrastructural elements alongside its service provisions. Central to this paradigm is the utilization of BIM as a pivotal tool, facilitating the creation of cities that are not only intelligent and interconnected but also sustainable and fundamentally livable. This study aims to delineate a systematic workflow for the generation of a digital twin of road infrastructure utilizing the BIM-centric software, Open Roads Design, developed by Bentley Systems. In instances where the requisite design project documentation is absent, data acquisition is achieved through the utilization of survey drones. Additionally, to streamline management processes, a bespoke interoperable asset manager is proposed.

Horizontal curves are one of the road sections with a high potential for accidents at high speeds. In such a section of road, vehicles may be subjected to high centrifugal forces due to the horizontal curve and the high vertical downhill slope. Thus, vehicles often tend to drift out of their lane. In this case, the lane utilisation level of drivers within the small radius curve can vary and the lane keeping level may become. Low lane keeping by vehicles leads to traffic accidents caused by vehicles colliding sideways. This study quantitatively investigates the lane selection and utilization behaviour of drivers where such a problem is observed. Software has been developed to determine the lateral wheel positions (right-left) and the gravity centre positions of the vehicles on the lanes where there is both a small horizontal curve with a small radius and a vertical downhill slope. A total of 279 (84.5%) vehicles were observed to have different levels of lane keeping discipline. In addition, a total of 51 (15.5%) vehicles had no lane keeping discipline. It was also found that cars and vans in light vehicle status use Lane-1 more often in order to be less exposed to the skidding effect in the horizontal curve. It has been observed that the lane keeping of many vehicles moves away from the ideal situation due to the centrifugal force effect caused by the horizontal curve, and as a result they continue their movements by using both lanes.

The primary goal of this research was to assess the overall effectiveness of information visualization across passenger terminals, its contribution to making happy customers and to formulate recommendations aimed at enhancing service satisfaction regarding available information services for passengers. The comparison of four best practices investigated in this study revealed quite similar disparities in the level of information services currently offered. Given the variations among terminals in terms of population size, involved operators, and urban role, it is evident that customer satisfaction levels will also vary accordingly based on the proportion of available information services for travelers.The secondary goal of this study was to examine and evaluate the effectiveness of information provision at Riga International Coach Terminal. The focus was on assessing their visualization tools. Pilot survey was conducted for insights and to gain more information or feedback on the choice of information services used and their performance so far. Synthesize research findings and formulate actionable recommendations for enhancing customer satisfaction in information provision within bus and coach terminals.

The gas pressure force due to combustion and inertial force of moving parts acts on the lower connecting rod head cover. As the crankshaft rotates, the inertial force is always directed away from the center of the crankshaft. The component of the inertial force acting on the connecting rod head cover decreases as the piston approaches top dead center (TDC) and increases as the piston approaches bottom dead center (BDC), but maintains the load of the same sign. Thus, the cap is subjected to a pulsating cycle, constant sign load. The maximum load of the inertial force acting on the cover is generated at the BDC. When calculating the strength of the cap, it was considered that it is a curved beam with a bending load acting in the middle. The size of this load depends on the geometrical parameters of engine, gas pressure at the TDC, the speed of the crankshaft rotation and mass of the parts of cranktrain. Two spark ignition engines (SIE) and two compression ignition engines (CIE) researched with wide range of swept volume, engine speed and geometrical parameters. It was concluded that the bending moment caused by the distributed load in the curved circular beam is smaller than in the straight beam. Moreover, at the real engine the fixed with two bolts connecting rod cap is a statically intractable beam whose bending moment will further decrease.