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2020 | Book

Tribology in Materials and Applications

Editors: Dr. Jitendra Kumar Katiyar, Dr. P. Ramkumar, Dr. T. V. V. L. N. Rao, Prof. J. Paulo Davim

Publisher: Springer International Publishing

Book Series : Materials Forming, Machining and Tribology

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About this book

This book broadens the knowledge of tribology. This book is evolved out of current research trends on tribological performance of systems related to nano tribology, rheology, engines, polymer brushes, composite materials, erosive wear and lubrication. The book deals with enhancing the ideas on tribological properties, the different types of wear phenomenon and lubrication enhancement. Further, the tribological performance of systems, whether nano, micro or macro-scale, depends upon a large number of external parameters and important among them are temperature, contact pressure and relative speed. Thus, the book focus on the theoretical aspects to industrial applications of tribology.

Table of Contents

Frontmatter
Chapter 1. Introduction and Applications of Tribology
Abstract
Present chapter describes about the basic terms involve in tribology and their application in different fields. When two bodies are in a relative motion, at the interface rubbing occurred, due to rubbing, friction produced and friction eventually causes the wear on one or both the materials. Therefore, the role of lubricant comes into the picture. Friction and wear between two bodies can be overcome by the application of lubricants. In the environment, air and water may act as a lubricant to reduce friction and improve wear resistant property. Furthermore, friction and wear performance of any structure either nano, micro or macro-scale is depends upon a large member of external parameters and important among them are relative speed, temperature, and contact pressure. This chapter also describes the important application of tribology in brief.
Anand Singh Rathaur, Jitendra Kumar Katiyar, Vinay Kumar Patel
Chapter 2. Polymer Brush Based Tribology
Abstract
Polymer chains with one of their ends grafted on a surface, stretch out in a good solvent to take a brush-like formation when the grafting density, \(\rho_{g} > 1/\left( {\pi R_{g}^{2} } \right)\), where Rg is the radius of gyration of a chain in a good solvent. The equilibrium height of such a polymer brush is larger than the unperturbed size (Rg) of the corresponding polymer chain in a bulk solution. Polymer brushes find applications in the fields of tribology, rheology, biology and colloid-stabilization. Polymer brush based tribology is a recent attempt to mimic glycoproteins based lubrication found in nature. Higher coefficients of friction are observed due to as perity contact when hard surfaces are brought in contact and sheared against each-other. In contrast, when polymer-brush bearing surfaces are brought in contact with each-other and sheared in the presence of a good-solvent, much lower coefficients of friction are observed. Due to entropic reasons opposing polymer brushes avoid inter-digitation even under high compression enabling development of a thin fluid film between the brushes. Such a formation helps polymer brushes to support relatively high applied normal load while the thin fluid film in-between helps in reducing the friction. Tribological behavior of polymer brushes can be tuned by changing the grafting-density (ρg), chain-length (Lc), chain-stiffness (Kb), solvent-quality and cross-linking of chains. Possibility of designing lubricant with specific tribological properties make polymer-brushes an interesting topic of research. In this chapter we will go through the effects of different polymer-brush architectures on the tribological behavior of polymer brushes.
Manjesh K. Singh
Chapter 3. Thin Film Lubrication, Lubricants and Additives
Abstract
Friction will be generated when two solid bodies are pressed over or slide against each other, and it acts opposite to the direction of relative motion. Lubricants are frequently used to reduce friction which otherwise may result in high machine wear and energy losses. Depending upon the phenomenon, lubrication can be classified into four different regimes: boundary, mixed, elastohydrodynamic and hydrodynamic. In boundary regime, the frictional response is mainly governed by the properties of the surfaces and it generally involves adsorption of lubricant molecules onto the mating surfaces. Therefore, in this regime, properties other than bulk properties of the lubricants play a significant role in determining the frictional response. Mixed or thin film lubrication (TFL) is a bridge that mark the transition from boundary to Elasto-Hydrodynamic (EHL) [or hydrodynamic (HL)] regimes. In TFL the load is partly supported by direct contact of the surface asperities and partly by the fluid. EHL regime is a type of HL regime which is characterized by the formation of sufficiently thick fluid film which fully separates the surfaces from direct contact thus reducing friction. Elastic deflections of the surfaces in contact in EHL regime influence the shape and thickness of the lubricant film significantly. HL differs from EHL due to negligible elastic deformation of the surfaces at the contact interface. In EHL/HL, load is fully supported by the lubricant where the bulk property of the lubricant and entrainment velocity of the tribo pairs determines the film thickness and friction. Transition between different lubrication regimes is well described by Stribeck curve. In this chapter, the mechanism of transition between different regimes and factors influencing the frictional response, different types of lubricants and additives types and their key features will be covered.
Febin Cyriac, Aydar Akchurin
Chapter 4. Rheological Behaviour of Hybrid Nanofluids: A Review
Abstract
A colloidal mixture of two different nanoparticles into conventional fluid (water, oil and metal working fluids etc.) called as hybrid nanofluids. Hybrid nanofluids are considered as the most promising and emerging as heat transfer fluid in cooling applications as compared to the conventional fluid and a well as mono type nanofluids. Mixture of solid particles and fluid is also called as two phase fluids. Mixing of nano meter-sized particles into conventional heat transfer fluid enhance the performance of the newly developed hybrid nanofluid. In last few years, it has taken the researchers attention to work on the mixing of two or more nano-sized particles in conventional heat transfer fluids. Few of the studies shows that hybrid nanofluid perform better as compared to single nanofluids and has the ability to replace the single nanoparticles mixed fluid. However, in the published literature several studies has shown that there are number of parameters such as concentration of nanoparticles, shape, size, temperature, intensity of ultra-sonication, pH, and stability affecting the performance of the nanoparticles mixed cutting fluids. In the present paper, a comprehensive study has been carried out to show the recent development related to the hybrid nanofluids.
Anuj Kumar Sharma, Rabesh Kumar Singh, Arun Kumar Tiwari, Amit Rai Dixit, Jitendra Kumar Katiyar
Chapter 5. Energy Efficient Graphene Based Nano-composite Grease
Abstract
Performance of grease lubricated point contact under elasto-hydrodynamics lubrication (EHL) regime is complex and critical in many practical and engineering applications. This article deals with the detailed rheology, film formation and elastic recovery characteristics of the developed nano-composite grease. The composite grease is prepared by dispersing the reduced graphene oxide nano-sheets to bare grease. The detailed microstructural morphology of the nano-additives and different grease samples is evaluated using high resolution transmission electron microscopy (HRTEM). The rotational rheometer under oscillatory mode is used to evaluate the storage (G’) and loss moduli (G”). The film formation is recorded using elasto-hydrodynamic rig for range of speed at constant load and different temperatures. The results shows that modification in microstructure due to dispersion of reduced graphene oxide (rGO) nano-sheets, improves the rheological and tribological behavior. Based on film formation and recovery or reflow characteristics, the rGO dispersed composite grease is efficient. The rGO dispersed composite grease registers 92% of elastic recovery.
Jayant Singh, Deepak Bhardwaj, Jitendra Kumar Katiyar
Chapter 6. Synthesis of Magneto Rheological Fluids Using Nickel Particles and Study on Their Rheological Behaviour
Abstract
Magnetorheological fluids are the best options for the many of the problems related to engineering to medical applications. This is the reason why many researchers are concentrated to make their study on these fluids. Fundamental study on these fluids had been considered as the most significant aspect of this field. Till now many researchers made their study on magneto rheological fluid synthesized by using iron (Fe) particles as their magnetic particles. Now in our study we have made an attempt to replace the iron particles by Nickel (2–5 μ) one, silicone oil is used as a carrier oil and oleic acid as surfactant. Prepared MR sample was tested under rheometer for the rheological properties thixotropic and regression analysis is made for different samples.
Vikram G. Kamble, H. S. Panda, Shreedhar Kolekar, T. Jagadeesha
Chapter 7. Tribology of Intelligent Magnetorheological Materials
Abstract
Magneto rheological (MR) fluid are categorized as one of smart materials, where the viscosity of the fluid enhances significantly under the influence of applied magnetic field. The fluids are set up by scattering micron scale magnetic particles into a fluid media called as carrier fluid with added substances for improving the rheological characteristics of fluid. The fundamental element of these fluid is the capacity to undergo change from fluidized state to semisolid state under controllable yield stress within couple of milliseconds in the wake of externally activated magnetic field. Lower magneto rheological impact and sedimentation of particles in MR fluids are the most challenging topics against the broad applications of MR fluid revolution in current ventures. Different techniques have been proposed and utilized by analysts to enhance the magneto rheological impact and stability of these liquids against the sedimentation. The primary focal point of this brief is to show a thorough survey on various strategies for synthesis and reduction in sedimentation rate of MR fluids. Besides, rheological models and use of MR liquids are talked about along this compilation.
Rakesh Jinaga, Shreedhar Kolekar, T. Jagadeesha
Chapter 8. Nanostructured Layered Materials as Novel Lubricant Additives for Tribological Applications
Abstract
Development of novel lubricant materials to reduce the friction and wear for a diversified range of tribological applications is a subject of great interest. Over the last one decade, two-dimensional (2D) nanostructured layered materials have attracted immense interests for a wide range of applications including enhancement of tribological properties. The fascinating and favorable characteristics of 2D nanomaterials viz. excellent thermal conductivity to take away the heat from contact interfaces, exceptionally high mechanical strength to provide remarkable wear-resistivity, low shear strength to reduce the friction, and high surface area to facilitate their dispersion have made the 2D nanomaterials highly promising candidates for solid thin films and additives to liquid lubricants. The chapter discusses the tribological applications of graphene, MoS2, WS2, and h-BN as additives to automotive lubricants, greases, and metalworking fluids. The chemical functionalization and dispersion aspects of 2D nanostructured layered materials, tribo-performance using variable contact geometries, and analyses of worn surfaces etc. are presented to outlines the lubrication mechanism.
Sangita Kumari, Ajay Chouhan, Om P. Khatri
Chapter 9. Evolution of Surface Topography During Wear Process
Abstract
There is an increasing demand for high power density (power throughput/weight) machines such as wind turbines, gear boxes, electric drive trains, and turbines. This requires design of heavily loaded tribological components such as bearings, gears, CVT etc., for preventing surface failure. Tribology analyzes surface contacts between two bodies which are in relative motion. To separate contacting surfaces lubricant is supplied between contacts which form a film. In lubricated non-conformal concentrated contacts (e.g. gears, bearings, cams etc.), it is always desirable to run the components in elastohydrodynamic regime for longer life and negligible wear. However, what is achieved is mostly boundary and mixed lubrication regimes. This is because it is almost impossible to create a surface with negligible roughness. The reason is manufacturing and machining processes by which solid components are produced. During the material processing, texture form on the surface of the components which is in form of roughness, waviness and form. The cavities, voids, inclusions are also induced on the surface during heat treatment. When components are subjected to rolling/sliding motion, these defects (roughness and inclusions) act as stress raisers which is responsible for the crack initiation and crack propagation and ultimately material fails due to material degradations in form of tiny particles (e.g. micro pitting) or in form of spall (macro pitting). Recently, the research has been focused on effect of surface topography on the life of tribological components. This chapter demonstrates the determination of important surface topography parameters by using statistical and fractal methods. Later on, evolution of topography parameters during the wear process is explored in detail and it will be shown that surface topography parameters significantly vary during wear.
Deepak K. Prajapati, Mayank Tiwari
Chapter 10. Wear Characteristics of LASER Cladded Surface Coating
Abstract
Laser cladding by a powder injection technique has been widely used in industrial applications such as rapid manufacturing, parts repair, surface coating, and innovative alloy development. The capability to mix two or more types of powders and to control the feed rate of each powder flow makes laser cladding a flexible process for fabricating heterogeneous components or functionally graded materials. This technology also allows the material gradient to be designed at a microstructure level because of small localized fusion and strong mixing motion in the melt pool of laser cladding. Thus materials can be tailored for a flexible functional performance in particular applications. The inherently rapid heating and cooling rates associated with the laser-cladding process enable extended solid solubility in the metastable or non-equilibrium phases of production, offering the possibility of creating new materials with advanced properties. Laser cladding uses the same concept as arc welding methods, except that a laser is used to melt the surface of the substrate and the additional material, which can be in the form of wire, powder or strip. Laser cladding is commonly performed with CO2, Nd: YAG, and more recently fibre lasers. Laser cladding typically produces clads having low dilution, low porosity and good surface uniformity. This technique produces minimal heat input on the part, which largely eliminates distortion and the need for post-processing, and avoids the loss of alloying elements or hardening of the base material. The clad material experiences a rapid natural quench when cooling down after deposition, which results in a fine-grained microstructure. Among the different surface treatments used to improve the wear resistance of metallic materials, laser cladding is an attractive alternative to conventional techniques due to the intrinsic properties of laser radiation: high input energy, low distortion, avoidance of undesirable phase transformations and minimum dilution between the substrate and the coating. Furthermore, the advantages of laser cladding include great processing flexibility and the possibility of selectively cladding small areas. These advantages not only result in better quality products but also offer significant economic benefits. This chapter describes in details three major aspects of LASER cladding surface coating with respect to wear characteristics. The first subsection will describe different LASER cladding techniques and their effect on surface morphology. And how these surface morphologies are affecting the wear characteristics. The second subsection will provide the details on different aspects of filler metal selection for wear resistance applications. Then, the effect of process parameters on the surface morphology will be discussed thoroughly. The focus will be particularly on the effect of heat input on the wear behaviour of the cladded surface. The overall aim is to cover a broad area of LASER cladding surface coating in terms of wear characteristics and the improvement in wear resistance compared to other techniques.
Manidipto Mukherjee
Chapter 11. Analysis of Journal Bearing with Partial Texture Lubricated Using Micropolar and Power-Law Fluids
Abstract
The analysis of micropolar and power-law fluid lubricated journal bearing with partial texture is presented. The pressure and shear stress expressions (nondimensional) for micropolar and power-law fluids are derived based on narrow groove theory (NGT) using Reynolds boundary conditions. The nondimensional partial texture, micropolar and power-law fluid parameters considered in the analysis are: extent of texture region; land to cell extent ratio; depth of recess; coupling number, ratio of characteristic length to film gap and power-law index. The improvement in load capacity and reduction in coefficient of friction of partial texture journal bearings lubricated with micropolar and power-law fluids is evaluated.
T. V. V. L. N. Rao, Ahmad Majdi Abdul Rani, Norani Muti Mohamed, Hamdan Haji Ya, Mokhtar Awang, Fakhruldin Mohd Hashim
Chapter 12. Evaluation of the Effect of Friction in Gear Contact Stresses
Abstract
Stress analysis of gears has become a popular area of research in order to reduce failures and optimize the gear design. Friction between gears is detrimental to the gear surface contacts, but there is no effective method to determine the frictional effects on these contacts. Inclusion of friction in the study of gear contact is sparse. Also, friction depends on various other parameters, which in turn are ambiguous to evaluate. Hence, a quantitative study of frictional effects on gear contact problem is therefore essential. Thus, to solve the present problem, a dimensionless factor needs to be developed which would account for the friction in gear contact stress calculations. A simplified gear contact stress evaluation technique which includes friction needs to be developed. In this work, a 3D frictional Finite Element Method (FEM) was employed for the gear frictional study. Also, an experimental validation was carried out using a customised experimental setup, Gear Dynamic Stress Test Rig (GDSTR). The experimental results provided a good correlation with the results of the developed 3D FE models. The results from the validated FE models showed 15–22% rise in gear contact stresses for increased frictional coefficients, which is significant. The FE analysis was further extended and a parametric study was carried out. A dimensionless friction factor function was developed in this work to estimate the frictional gear contact stresses. The mathematically correlated Kf function was verified and its inclusion provides better frictional contact stress evaluation in gears, thus providing a simplified frictional measure in gear contact stress calculations.
Santosh S. Patil, Saravanan Karuppanan
Chapter 13. Tribo-mechanical Aspects in Micro-electro Mechanical Systems (MEMS)
Abstract
Micro Electro-Mechanical System (MEMS) devices continue to find new applications in technology. Some of the successful MEMS are micro-reservoir, micro-pumps, cantilever, micro-pillars for holding the mirror devices in projectors, rotors, channels, valves, sensors etc. In majority of the cases, polycrystalline silicon is used as the structural material for MEMS fabrication because of the micro fabrication process knowledge acquired from the semi-conductor industry. Recently, polymer materials have also been used for MEMS fabrication. Some of the polymers used as structural material are acrylic (PMMA), PDMS and the epoxy-based SU-8. SU-8 is a negative photoresist which is UV curable and has excellent mechanical properties over other polymers. However, when compared to silicon, SU-8 is mechanically inferior. SU-8 has excellent thermal stability. Despite many processing advantages, the bulk mechanical and tribological properties of SU-8 are the main limitations in making it is a versatile MEMS material. Therefore, it is important to increase mechanical strength and toughness, and reduce friction and wear of SU-8 without affecting its micro-fabrication efficiency. Tribology of MEMS, in general, is important as these machines do contain moving parts with relative motion in contact with each other. Smaller parts have high surface area to volume ratio which increases the adhesion and friction forces between two surfaces. In MEMS, wear is a result of high friction.
Anand Singh Rathaur, Jitendra Kumar Katiyar, Vinay Kumar Patel
Chapter 14. Analysis of Rotor Stability Supported by Surface Porous Layered Journal Bearing
Abstract
An analysis of modified Reynolds equation for surface porous layer configuration based on short (Ocvirk) bearing approximation is presented under dynamic conditions. The steady state pressure and dynamic pressure gradients are analyzed using Lund’s perturbation method. The nondimensional parameters of film thickness ratio of surface porous layers, dynamic viscosity ratio of surface layers, and permeability of porous layers are considered in the analysis. The stiffness and damping coefficients, threshold (critical) speed and whirl ratio (critical) for layered bearings are presented. An improvement in critical (threshold) speed of layer (film) journal bearings is evaluated.
C. Shravankumar, K. Jegadeesan, T. V. V. L. N. Rao
Chapter 15. Tribological Effects of Diesel Engine Oil Contamination on Steel and Hybrid Sliding Contacts
Abstract
In advanced automotive engines, especially in diesel engines, consumer demand for ever increasing service intervals for vehicles has led to longer oil drain periods. Consequently this has increased contamination levels in lubricating oils that will in turn reduce engine efficiency and increase the possibility of system failure due to increases in viscosity and the potential of oil starvation leading to scuffing and catastrophic failure of the engine. Therefore it is necessary to understand the effects of contaminants in diesel engine oil on the tribological performance of tribo-contacts and also the possible interaction between the contaminants. The paper aims to investigate the influence of contaminants and their interactions on diesel engine oil using Electro sensing (ES) monitoring. Using pin-on-disc (PoD) tribometer, all tests were carried out under ambient conditions at 5 m/s sliding speed and contact stress of 1.5–2.05 GPa to simulate a valve-train in a diesel engine with fully formulated heavy-duty diesel engine oil used as lubricant. In the first phase, using a parametric study examining the effect of four contaminants (soot, oxidation, moisture, and sulphuric acid) at varying levels (four for each) on steel-on-steel sliding contact. It was observed that all contaminants and contaminant levels reduce the conductivity of the oil. Oxidation and soot contaminants produced large increases in viscosity. The wear rate was mainly influenced by acid and soot additions, while the coefficient of friction was increased by all contaminants and contaminant levels. The steady-state charge levels changed for some contaminants. The best correlation of steady-state charge with the other measured tribological parameters of wear rate, friction, and temperature is seen for the series of oxidized oils. The multi-contaminated oil (L4× 4) shows remarkably little degradation in tribological performance. Analysis of the wear mechanisms shows that soot and oxidation produced abrasion and polishing wear, respectively, while sulphuric acid and moisture produced corrosive wear. In the second phase, investigates the effects of diesel contaminants and their interaction on tribological properties for bearing steel (En31) and ceramic (Si3N4) sliding contacts using a factorial study. The contaminants are soot, sulphuric acid, moisture and oxidation, and each contaminant has three different level of concentration (low, medium and high) in the test matrix. The factorial test matrix consisted of 20 tests, constructed from a quarter fractional factorial test matrix with four points at the medium values for the contaminants. Results from this matrix required six further tests to elucidate aliased pairs of interactions using Bayesian model selection. A pin-on-disc tribometer was used to carry out all the experiments. The factorial study showed that charge was influenced by tribo-couple material; the silicon nitride discs produced higher charge than steel discs. However, it was opposite for friction; the silicon nitride disc gave lower friction and the pins showed higher friction than their steel counterparts. For wear scar and temperature, soot contaminant was found to be important. The two important interactions were found for the charge response, with the interaction between sulphuric acid and pin material being more important than sulphuric acid–oxidation interaction. Similarly to charge, an interaction between sulphuric acid and pin material interaction was found for friction. To conclude, the ES monitoring was sensitive to the presence and levels of contaminants in diesel lubricating oil, particularly diesel soot. The change in charge levels indicated the concentration of soot level present in the contact, which was directly related to wear. ES monitoring also detected interactions between the contaminants through statistical analysis. ES monitoring has shown that monitoring lubricant performance and the effects of contamination are feasible under laboratory conditions.
Ramkumar Penchaliah
Backmatter
Metadata
Title
Tribology in Materials and Applications
Editors
Dr. Jitendra Kumar Katiyar
Dr. P. Ramkumar
Dr. T. V. V. L. N. Rao
Prof. J. Paulo Davim
Copyright Year
2020
Electronic ISBN
978-3-030-47451-5
Print ISBN
978-3-030-47450-8
DOI
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-47451-5

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