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2020 | OriginalPaper | Chapter

8. Tying It All Together: A Theory of Collective Production of Innovation to Inspire Future Research

Authors : Ann Majchrzak, Arvind Malhotra

Published in: Unleashing the Crowd

Publisher: Springer International Publishing

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Abstract

Since we are interested in progressing research, we present a scholarly version of our theory of collective production of innovation in which innovating crowds consist of some participants willing to use their scant two posts to disaggregate their knowledge into creative associations of knowledge batons and others willing to take those knowledge batons and co-mingle them to stimulate creative discoveries. The disaggregation occurs as people break down their causal models, their coherent perspectives, their proposals of need-solution pairs into factual assumptions, short statements of ideas, and creative associations. Since crowds spend so little time contributing to the wicked problem, the more effective the crowd can be at eliciting each other’s disaggregated knowledge in a way that stimulates creative thought in a virtuous cycle, the more likely that the crowd will successfully produce an innovative solution. The implications for a new direction for research on innovation and new organizational forms are discussed.

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previous chapter Practice 5: Allowing the Crowd to Play Any Innovation-Enabling Roles They Choose

next chapter Designing Technology Platforms for Collective Co-Production: Advice When Selecting Crowdsourcing Platforms

Please see endnotes for Chap. 1, which contains the references supporting these statements.

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Amabile, T. M. 1996. Creativity in Context: The Social Psychology of Creativity. Boulder, CO: Westview.

Scott Page in his Academy of Management Perspective article discusses the concept of superadditivity, when multiple perspectives are engaged so that new perspectives are created. The result is not integration or synthesis in the sense of simply accommodating to different perspectives, but rather, the creation of a new perspective. We do not use Page’s words of superadditivity and prefer co-mingling to avoid any confusion that the issues raised simply add up to a new perspective. Page, S. E. (2007). Making the difference: Applying a logic of diversity. Academy of Management Perspectives, 21(4), 6–20.

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Reviewed by Dennis, A., & Williams, M. 2003. Electronic brainstorming. In P. B. Paulus & B. A. Nijstad (Eds) Group creativity: Innovation through collaboration: 160–178.

Biscaro, C., & A., Comacchio. 2018. Knowledge creation across worldviews: how metaphors impact and orient group creativity, Organization Science, 29: 58–79; Koskinen, K. U. (2005). Metaphoric boundary objects as co-ordinating mechanisms in the knowledge sharing of innovation processes. European Journal of Innovation Management, 8(3): 323–335.

For example, Biscaro, C., & A., Comacchio. 2018. Knowledge creation across worldviews: how metaphors impact and orient group creativity, Organization Science, 29: 58–79; Levina, N. & Fayard, A. L. 2018. Tapping into diversity through open innovation platforms: The emergence of boundary-spanning practices. In Tucci, C. L., Afuah, A., & Viscusi, G. (Eds.) Creating and Capturing Value through Crowdsourcing, Oxford University Press; Howison, J., & Crowston, K. 2014. Collaboration through open superposition. MIS Quarterly, 38(1): 29–50.

Majchrzak, A. and Malhotra, A. 2016. Effect of Knowledge-sharing Trajectories on Innovative Outcomes in Temporary Online Crowds, Information Systems Research, 27(4): 685–703 are one exception to this.

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Bolici, F., Howison, J., & Crowston, K. 2016. Stigmergic coordination in FLOSS development teams: Integrating explicit and implicit mechanisms. Cognitive Systems Research: 38, 14–22.

Dipple, A., Raymond, K., & Docherty, M. 2014. General theory of stigmergy: Modelling stigma semantics. Cognitive Systems Research, 31: 61–92.

Heylighen, F. 2016. Stigmergy as a universal coordination mechanism I: Definition and components. Cognitive Systems Research, 38: 4–13.

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Majchrzak, A. and Malhotra, A. 2016. Effect of Knowledge-sharing Trajectories on Innovative Outcomes in Temporary Online Crowds, Information Systems Research, 27(4): 685–703.

Parunak, H.V.D. 2006. A survey of environments and mechanisms for human-human stigmergy In D. Weyns, H.V.D. Parunak & F. Michel (Eds). International Workshop on Environments for Multi-Agent Systems (pp. 124–140). Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg.

Malhotra, A., & Majchrzak, A. 2014. Managing crowds in innovation challenges. California Management Review, 56(4): 103–123; Ranade, G., & Varshney, L. R. 2018. The role of information patterns in designing crowdsourcing contests. In C. Tucci, A. Afuah and G. Viscusi (Ed) Creating and Capturing Value Through Crowdsourcing. Oxford Scholarship Press.

Marsh, L., & Onof, C. 2008. Stigmergic epistemology, stigmergic cognition. Cognitive Systems Research, 9(1–2): 136–149.

Füller, J., Hutter, K., Hautz, J., & Matzler, K. 2014. User roles and contributions in innovation-contest communities. Journal of Management Information Systems, 31(1): 273–308.

Heylighen, F. 2015. Stigmergy as a universal coordinaton mechanisms: components, varieties and applications. In T. Lewis and L. Marsh (Eds) Human Stigmergy: Theoretical Developments and New Applications. Springer.

Viscusi, G. & Tucci, C.L. 2018. Three’s a Crowd. In Tucci, C. L., Afuah, A., & Viscusi, G. (Eds.) Creating and capturing value through crowdsourcing, Oxford University Press, p. 42.

Theraulaz, G. 2014. Embracing the creativity of stigmergy in social insects. Architectural Design 84(5): 54–59.

Dipple, A., Raymond, K., & Docherty, M. 2014. General theory of stigmergy: Modelling stigma semantics. Cognitive Systems Research, 31: 61–92.

Majchrzak, A. and Malhotra, A. 2016. Effect of Knowledge-sharing Trajectories on Innovative Outcomes in Temporary Online Crowds, Information Systems Research, 27(4): 685–703.

Heylighen, F. 2016. Stigmergy as a universal coordination mechanism I: Definition and components. Cognitive Systems Research, 38: 4–13; Parunak, H.V.D. 2006. A survey of environments and mechanisms for human-human stigmergy In D. Weyns, H.V.D. Parunak & F. Michel (Eds). International Workshop on Environments for Multi-Agent Systems (pp. 124–140). Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg.

Heylighen, F. 2016. Stigmergy as a universal coordination mechanism I: Definition and components. Cognitive Systems Research, 38: 4–13.

Dipple, A., Raymond, K., & Docherty, M. 2014. General theory of stigmergy: Modelling stigma semantics. Cognitive Systems Research, 31: 61–92.

Ricci, A., Omicini, A., Viroli, M., Gardelli, L., & Oliva, E. 2006. Cognitive stigmergy: Towards a framework based on agents and artifacts. In D. Weyns, H.V.D. Parunak & F. Michel (Eds). International Workshop on Environments for Multi-Agent Systems (pp. 124–140). Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg.

Dipple, A., Raymond, K., & Docherty, M. 2014. General theory of stigmergy: Modelling stigma semantics. Cognitive Systems Research, 31: 61–92; Parunak, H.V.D. 2006. A survey of environments and mechanisms for human-human stigmergy In D. Weyns, H.V.D. Parunak & F. Michel (Eds). International Workshop on Environments for Multi-Agent Systems (pp. 124–140). Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg.

This builds on the discussion of routines in Feldman, M. S., & Pentland, B. T. 2003. Reconceptualizing organizational routines as a source of flexibility and change. Administrative Science Quarterly, 48(1): 94–118.

And, using the defenition of emergence from Mittal, S. 2013. Emergence in stigmergic and complex adaptive systems: A formal discrete event systems perspective. Cognitive Systems Research, 21: 22–39.

Afuah, A. 2018a. Crowdsourcing: A Primer and Research Framework. In Creating and capturing value through crowdsourcing. In Tucci, C. L., Afuah, A., & Viscusi, G. (Eds.), Creating and Capturing Value through Crowdsourcing, Oxford University Press, pp. 39–57.

Viscusi, G. & Tucci, C.L. 2018. Three’s a Crowd. In Tucci, C. L., Afuah, A., & Viscusi, G. (Eds.) Creating and capturing value through crowdsourcing, Oxford University Press, pp. 39–57.

Nickerson, J. A., Wuebker, R., & Zenger, T. 2017. Problems, theories, and governing the crowd. Strategic Organization, 15(2): 275–288.

For example, Afuah, A. 2018a. Crowdsourcing: A Primer and Research Framework. In Creating and capturing value through crowdsourcing. In Tucci, C. L., Afuah, A., & Viscusi, G. (Eds.), Creating and Capturing Value through Crowdsourcing, Oxford University Press, pp. 39–57; Dahlander, L., Piezunka, H., & Jeppesen, L. 2018. How organizations manage crowds: Define, broadcast, attract and select. In J. Sydow and H. Berends (eds.) Managing Inter-organizational collaborations – Process View. Part of a series: Research in the Sociology of Organizations; Jeppesen, L. B., & Lakhani, K. R. 2010. Marginality and problem-solving effectiveness in broadcast search. Organization Science, 21(5): 1016–1033.

Isocracy (countable and uncountable, plural isocracies): A form of government where all citizens have equal political power (Wikipedia); Kazamias, A. M. (1961). Meritocracy and Isocracy in American Education: Retrospect and Prospect. In The Educational Forum (Vol. 25, No. 3, pp. 345–354). Taylor & Francis Group.

Theraulaz, G. 2014. Embracing the creativity of stigmergy in social insects. Architectural Design 84(5): 54–59.

Thank you to John Wentworth for this wonderful idea.

Lifshitz-Assaf, H. (2018). Dismantling knowledge boundaries at NASA: The critical role of professional identity in open innovation. Administrative science quarterly, 63(4), 746–782.

Mortensen, M., & Hinds, P. (2002). Fuzzy teams: Boundary disagreement in distributed and collocated teams. Distributed work, 284–308.

A. Cockburn, Agile software development, Reading, MA, USA: Addison-Wesley, 2002.

Malhotra, A., Majchrzak, A., Carman, R., & Lott, V. (2001). Radical innovation without collocation: A case study at Boeing-Rocketdyne. MIS quarterly, 229–249.

Lovelace, K., Shapiro, D. L., & Weingart, L. R. (2001). Maximizing cross-functional new product teams’ innovativeness and constraint adherence: A conflict communications perspective. Academy of management journal, 44(4), 779–793.

Baer M, Dirks KT, Nickerson JA. 2013. Microfoundations of strategic problem formulation. Strategic Management Journal 34: 197–214.

Majchrzak, A., More, P. H., & Faraj, S. (2012). Transcending knowledge differences in cross-functional teams. Organization Science, 23(4), 951–970.

Page, S. E. (2007). Making the difference: Applying a logic of diversity. Academy of Management Perspectives, 21(4), 6–20.

Saving Our Oceans: Tackling Grand Challenges Through Crowdsourcing by Amanda J. Porter, Philipp Tuertscher, & Marleen Huysman, to be published in Journal of Management.

Thank you to John Wentworth for this interesting idea.

This notion of the burstiness of the crowd was raised by Riedl, C., & Woolley, A. W. (2017). Teams vs. crowds: A field test of the relative contribution of incentives, member ability, and emergent collaboration to crowd-based problem solving performance. Academy of Management Discoveries, 3(4), 382–403.

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Garud, R., Jain, S., & Tuertscher, P. 2008. Incomplete by design and designing for incompleteness. Organization Studies, 29(3), 351–371.

Majchrzak, A., Griffith, T., Reez, D., Alexy, O. 2018. Organizations Designed for Grand Challenges: Generative Dilemmas and Implications for Organization Design Theory. Academy of Management Discoveries, 4(4): 472–496.

Ashkenas, R., Ulrich, D., Jick, T., & Kerr, S. 2015. The Boundaryless Organization: Breaking the chains of organizational structure. John Wiley & Sons.

Altman, E. J., Nagle, F., & Tushman, M. 2014. Innovating without information constraints. Organizations, communities, and innovation when information costs approach zero. In C. Shalley, M. A. Hitt, & J. Zhou (Eds.), The Oxford handbook of creativity, innovation, and entrepreneurship: 353–384. Oxford Handbooks Online.

As suggested by Vedres, B., & Stark, D. 2010. Structural folds: Generative disruption in overlapping groups. American Journal of Sociology, 115(4): 1150–1190.

As suggested by Tsoukas, H. 2009. A dialogical approach to the creation of new knowledge in organizations. Organization Science, 20(6): 941–957.

As suggested by Nickerson, J. A., Wuebker, R., & Zenger, T. 2017. Problems, theories, and governing the crowd. Strategic Organization, 15(2): 275–288.

Dahlander, L., Piezunka, H., & Jeppesen, L. 2018. How organizations manage crowds: Define, broadcast, attract and select. In J. Sydow and H. Berends (eds.) Managing Inter-organizational collaborations – Process View. Part of a series: Research in the Sociology of Organizations; Jeppesen, L. B., & Lakhani, K. R. 2010. Marginality and problem-solving effectiveness in broadcast search. Organization Science, 21(5): 1016–1033.

Kane, A. A., & Levina, N. 2017. ‘Am I Still One of Them?’: Bicultural Immigrant Managers Navigating Social Identity Threats When Spanning Global Boundaries. Journal of Management Studies, 54(4): 540–577; Levina, N., & Vaast, E. 2005. The emergence of boundary spanning competence in practice: implications for implementation and use of information systems. MIS Quarterly: 335–363.

E.g., Dahlander, L., Piezunka, H., & Jeppesen, L. 2018. How organizations manage crowds: Define, broadcast, attract and select. In J. Sydow and H. Berends (eds.) Managing Inter-organizational collaborations – Process View. Part of a series: Research in the Sociology of Organizations; Levina and Fayard (2018).

Malhotra, A., Majchrzak, A., & Niemiec, R. M. 2017. Using public crowds for open strategy formulation: mitigating the risks of knowledge gaps. Long Range Planning, 50(3): 397–410; Malhotra, A., Majchrzak, A., Kesebi, L., & Looram, S. 2017. Developing innovative solutions through internal crowdsourcing. MIT Sloan Management Review, 58(4): 73.

Levina, N. & Fayard, A. L. 2018. Tapping into diversity through open innovation platforms: The emergence of boundary-spanning practices. In Tucci, C. L., Afuah, A., & Viscusi, G. (Eds.) Creating and Capturing Value through Crowdsourcing, Oxford University Press.

That Tsoukas, H. 2009. A dialogical approach to the creation of new knowledge in organizations. Organization Science, 20(6): 941–957 argues.

Afuah, A., & Tucci, C. L. (2012). Crowdsourcing as a solution to distant search. Academy of Management Review, 37(3): 355–375; Dahlander, L., Piezunka, H., & Jeppesen, L. 2018. How organizations manage crowds: Define, broadcast, attract and select. In J. Sydow and H. Berends (eds.) Managing Inter-organizational collaborations – Process View. Part of a series: Research in the Sociology of Organizations.

Majchrzak, A., Griffith, T., Reez, D., Alexy, O. (2018) Organizations Designed for Grand Challenges: Generative Dilemmas and Implications for Organization Design Theory. Academy of Management Discoveries, 4(4), 472–496.

Lakhani KR and Panetta JA (2007) The principles of distributed innovation. Innovations 2(3): 97–112; Kornberger, M. (2017). The visible hand and the crowd: Analyzing organization design in distributed innovation systems. Strategic Organization, 15(2), 174–193.

Garud, R., Jain, S., & Tuertscher, P. (2008). Incomplete by design and designing for incompleteness. Organization studies, 29(3), 351–371.

Afuah, A. (2018). Crowdsourcing: A Primer and Research Framework. In Creating and Capturing Value through Crowdsourcing. In C. L. Tucci, A. Afuah, & G. Viscusi (Eds.), Creating and Capturing Value through Crowdsourcing (pp. 39–57). Oxford University Press.

Afuah, A., & Tucci, C. L. (2012). Crowdsourcing as a Solution to Distant Search. Academy of Management Review, 37(3), 355–375.CrossRef

Altman, E. J., Nagle, F., & Tushman, M. (2014). Innovating without Information Constraints Organizations, Communities, and Innovation When Information Costs Approach Zero. In C. Shalley, M. A. Hitt, & J. Zhou (Eds.), The Oxford Handbook of Creativity, Innovation, and Entrepreneurship (pp. 353–384). Oxford Handbooks Online.

Amabile, T. M. (1996). Creativity in Context: The Social Psychology of Creativity. Boulder, CO: Westview.

Ashkenas, R., Ulrich, D., Jick, T., & Kerr, S. (2015). The Boundaryless Organization: Breaking the Chains of Organizational Structure. John Wiley & Sons.

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Dahlander, L., Piezunka, H., & Jeppesen, L. (2018). How Organizations Manage Crowds: Define, Broadcast, Attract and Select. In J. Sydow & H. Berends (Eds.), Managing Inter-organizational Collaborations – Process View (Part of a series: Research in the Sociology of Organizations). Bingley: Emerald Publishing Limited.

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Elliott, M. A. (2016). Stigmergic Collaboration: A Framework for Understanding and Designing Mas Collaboration. In U. Cress et al. (Eds.), Mass Collaboration and Education. Springer.

Feldman, M. S., & Pentland, B. T. (2003). Reconceptualizing Organizational Routines as a Source of Flexibility and Change. Administrative Science Quarterly, 48(1), 94–118.CrossRef

Finke, R. A., Ward, T. B., & Smith, S. M. (1992). Creative Cognition. MIT Press.

Füller, J., Hutter, K., Hautz, J., & Matzler, K. (2014). User Roles and Contributions in Innovation-Contest Communities. Journal of Management Information Systems, 31(1), 273–308.CrossRef

Garud, R., Kumaraswamy, A., & Sambamurthy, V. (2006). Emergent by Design: Performance and Transformation at Infosys Technologies. Organization Science, 17(2), 277–286.CrossRef

Garud, R., Jain, S., & Tuertscher, P. (2008). Incomplete by Design and Designing for Incompleteness. Organization Studies, 29(3), 351–371.CrossRef

Harvey, S. (2014). Creative Synthesis: Exploring the Process of Extraordinary Group Creativity. Academy of Management Review, 39(3), 324–343.CrossRef

Heylighen, F. (2015). Stigmergy as a Universal Coordinaton Mechanisms: Components, Varieties and Applications. In T. Lewis & L. Marsh (Eds.), Human Stigmergy: Theoretical Developments and New Applications. Springer.

Heylighen, F. (2016). Stigmergy as a Universal Coordination Mechanism I: Definition and Components. Cognitive Systems Research, 38, 4–13.CrossRef

Howison, J., & Crowston, K. (2014). Collaboration through Open Superposition. MIS Quarterly, 38(1), 29–50.CrossRef

Jeppesen, L. B., & Lakhani, K. R. (2010). Marginality and Problem-Solving Effectiveness in Broadcast Search. Organization Science, 21(5), 1016–1033.CrossRef

Kane, A. A., & Levina, N. (2017). ‘Am I Still One of Them?’: Bicultural Immigrant Managers Navigating Social Identity Threats When Spanning Global Boundaries. Journal of Management Studies, 54(4), 540–577.CrossRef

Kazamias, A. M. (1961). Meritocracy and Isocracy in American Education: Retrospect and Prospect. The Educational Forum, 25(3), 345–354.CrossRef

Kornberger, M. (2017). The Visible Hand and the Crowd: Analyzing Organization Design in Distributed Innovation Systems. Strategic Organization, 15(2), 174–193.CrossRef

Koskinen, K. U. (2005). Metaphoric Boundary Objects as Co-ordinating Mechanisms in the Knowledge Sharing of Innovation Processes. European Journal of Innovation Management, 8(3), 323–335.CrossRef

Lakhani, K. R., & Panetta, J. A. (2007). The Principles of Distributed Innovation. Innovations, 2(3), 97–112.CrossRef

Lakhani, K. R., Fayard, A. L., Levina, N., & Pokrywa, S. H. (2012). OpenIDEO. Harvard Business School Technology & Operations Mgt. Unit Case (612-066).

Levina, N., & Fayard, A. L. (2018). Tapping into Diversity through Open Innovation Platforms: The Emergence of Boundary-Spanning Practices. In C. L. Tucci, A. Afuah, & G. Viscusi (Eds.), Creating and Capturing Value through Crowdsourcing. Oxford University Press.

Levina, N., & Vaast, E. (2005). The Emergence of Boundary Spanning Competence in Practice: Implications for Implementation and Use of Information Systems. MIS Quarterly, 29, 335–363.CrossRef

Lifshitz-Assaf, H. (2018). Dismantling Knowledge Boundaries at NASA: The Critical Role of Professional Identity in Open Innovation. Administrative Science Quarterly, 63(4), 746–782.CrossRef

Lovelace, K., Shapiro, D. L., & Weingart, L. R. (2001). Maximizing Cross-functional New Product Teams’ Innovativeness and Constraint Adherence: A Conflict Communications Perspective. Academy of Management Journal, 44(4), 779–793.

Majchrzak, A., & Malhotra, A. (2016). Effect of Knowledge-Sharing Trajectories on Innovative Outcomes in Temporary Online Crowds. Information Systems Research, 27(4), 685–703.CrossRef

Majchrzak, A., More, P. H., & Faraj, S. (2012). Transcending Knowledge Differences in Cross-functional Teams. Organization Science, 23(4), 951–970.CrossRef

Majchrzak, A., Griffith, T., Reez, D., & Alexy, O. (2018). Organizations Designed for Grand Challenges: Generative Dilemmas and Implications for Organization Design Theory. Academy of Management Discoveries, 4(4), 472–496.CrossRef

Malhotra, A., & Majchrzak, A. (2014). Managing Crowds in Innovation Challenges. California Management Review, 56(4), 103–123.CrossRef

Malhotra, A., Majchrzak, A., Carman, R., & Lott, V. (2001). Radical Innovation without Collocation: A Case Study at Boeing-Rocketdyne. MIS Quarterly, 25, 229–249.CrossRef

Malhotra, A., Majchrzak, A., Kesebi, L., & Looram, S. (2017a). Developing Innovative Solutions through Internal Crowdsourcing. MIT Sloan Management Review, 58(4), 73.

Malhotra, A., Majchrzak, A., & Niemiec, R. M. (2017b). Using Public Crowds for Open Strategy Formulation: Mitigating the Risks of Knowledge Gaps. Long Range Planning, 50(3), 397–410.CrossRef

Marsh, L., & Onof, C. (2008). Stigmergic Epistemology, Stigmergic Cognition. Cognitive Systems Research, 9(1–2), 136–149.CrossRef

Mittal, S. (2013). Emergence in Stigmergic and Complex Adaptive Systems: A Formal Discrete Event Systems Perspective. Cognitive Systems Research, 21, 22–39.CrossRef

Mortensen, M., & Hinds, P. (2002). Fuzzy Teams: Boundary Disagreement in Distributed and Collocated Teams. In Distributed Work (pp. 284–308). Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.

Nickerson, J. A., Wuebker, R., & Zenger, T. (2017). Problems, Theories, and Governing the Crowd. Strategic Organization, 15(2), 275–288.CrossRef

Page, S. E. (2007). Making the Difference: Applying a Logic of Diversity. Academy of Management Perspectives, 21(4), 6–20.CrossRef

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Title: Tying It All Together: A Theory of Collective Production of Innovation to Inspire Future Research
Authors: Ann Majchrzak
Arvind Malhotra
Publisher: Springer International Publishing
Book: Unleashing the Crowd
Print ISBN: 978-3-030-25556-5

Electronic ISBN: 978-3-030-25557-2

Copyright Year: 2020
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-25557-2_8

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