Top

Published in:

2019 | OriginalPaper | Chapter

3. Urban Legends and Rumors Concerning the September 11 Attacks

Authors : William Aspray, James W. Cortada

Published in: From Urban Legends to Political Fact-Checking

Publisher: Springer International Publishing

Activate our intelligent search to find suitable subject content or patents.

search-config

AI-assisted search

Off

Abstract

This chapter provides an extended case study of the legends and rumors surrounding the September 11 terrorist attacks in the United States in 2001. The chapter draws upon existing scholarship about the cultural meaning of urban legends to explain how these legends are coping mechanisms for dealing with a complex, dangerous world in which the rules of life are changed. Based on a detailed analysis of the hundreds of stories about 9/11 on snopes and the thousands of posting on alt.folklore.urban about 9/11, the authors categorize the many types of urban legends associated with this event and give illustrations of each. The chapter also considers the role of conspiracy theories associated with these terrorist attacks and in particular looks at the 9/11 Truth Movement, which denies the accepted story of what happened on September 11. This case study enables us to look in depth at the working style used by snopes. The response on AFU to the terrorist attacks is compared to the response on two other Usenet newsgroups. The chapter also looks in particular at mercantile legends and how companies are harmed by urban legends – with a particular look at one restaurant, The Sheikh in suburban Detroit, which was harmed by false claims that its Arab workers celebrated the terrorist attacks. While most urban legends are textual, the chapter closes with a discussion of visual versions using photoshopping techniques.

Dont have a licence yet? Then find out more about our products and how to get one now:

Springer Professional "Wirtschaft+Technik"

Online-Abonnement

Mit Springer Professional "Wirtschaft+Technik" erhalten Sie Zugriff auf:

über 102.000 Bücher
über 537 Zeitschriften

aus folgenden Fachgebieten:

Automobil + Motoren
Bauwesen + Immobilien
Business IT + Informatik
Elektrotechnik + Elektronik
Energie + Nachhaltigkeit
Finance + Banking
Management + Führung
Marketing + Vertrieb
Maschinenbau + Werkstoffe
Versicherung + Risiko

Jetzt Wissensvorsprung sichern!

inform now

Springer Professional "Technik"

Online-Abonnement

Mit Springer Professional "Technik" erhalten Sie Zugriff auf:

über 67.000 Bücher
über 390 Zeitschriften

aus folgenden Fachgebieten:

Automobil + Motoren
Bauwesen + Immobilien
Business IT + Informatik
Elektrotechnik + Elektronik
Energie + Nachhaltigkeit
Maschinenbau + Werkstoffe

Jetzt Wissensvorsprung sichern!

inform now

Springer Professional "Wirtschaft"

Online-Abonnement

Mit Springer Professional "Wirtschaft" erhalten Sie Zugriff auf:

über 67.000 Bücher
über 340 Zeitschriften

aus folgenden Fachgebieten:

Bauwesen + Immobilien
Business IT + Informatik
Finance + Banking
Management + Führung
Marketing + Vertrieb
Versicherung + Risiko

Jetzt Wissensvorsprung sichern!

inform now

previous chapter From Debunking Urban Legends to Political Fact-Checking

next chapter Debunking as Hobby, Entertainment, Scholarly Pursuit, and Public Service

On the writings of bin Laden, see Ibrahim (2007).

For overall information on the terrorist attacks, see the official government report (Kean (2011)) as well as Bergen (2011); and Wright (2006); on the terror associated with the attacks, see Pyszczynski et al. (2003); on the relationship between political acts and the psychology of terror, see Huddy and Feldman (2011); and Morgan (2009); on memorialization and grieving, see Aronson (2016); Linenthal et al. (2013); Laqueur (2015); and Rosenblatt (2015); and on reactions to 9/11 as a cultural phenomenon, see Melnick (2009). Also see the Library of Congress September 11, 2001 Web Archive, which includes the snopes.com collection and The Avalon Project of the Yale Law School. For personal accounts of those involved in the attacks, see DiMarco (2007); Dwyer and Flynn (2004); and Smith (2003). For fiction inspired by the attacks, see DeLillo (2008); Foer (2006); and Waldman (2011); and for an overview of literature since 9/11 see Gray (2011).

Degh (2001), as quoted in Smith et al. (2010). Also see Gerould (1908/2000).

Smith et al. (2010). Also see Lindahl (2009) on the healing power of folklore images.

One might question how online behavior and offline behavior in reaction to the 9/11 attacks compared. Dutta-Bergman (2006) argues that there was strong channel complementarity: “individuals who posted their thoughts in online communities were significantly more likely to attend a meeting to discuss the attacks, to volunteer in relief efforts, to write about their views to a newspaper or other news organization, and to sign a petition regarding the attacks as compared to those other individuals who did not post their thoughts in online communities. No significant differences were found in the realm of attending religious services or donating blood. This may be a reflection of the noncommunicative nature of these activities…. The common theme that joins online and offline community participation is the individual’s orientation toward participating in the community with respect to an important crisis.”

This categorical scheme of 9/11 legends emerged from our analysis of the snopes.com 9/11 archive, but also see Heimbaugh (2001).

Goldstein (2009). Also see Behe (1988).

Bonaparte (1947), as quoted in Goldstein (2009).

On the healing power of art and other creative responses to the 9/11 attacks, see Zeitlin and Harlow (2001). On how memorializing online differed from memorializing in person, see Foot et al. (2005). On memorialization at the Pentagon, see Greenspan (2003) and Yocom (2006).

See Jackson (2005) for an interesting account of how the Hallmark company remained faithful to its corporate values in giving psychological aid after the 9/11 attacks.

Time had previously made this award to Hitler and Stalin, so it was clearly about people who changed the world but not necessarily for the better; however, under intense pressure, Time deciding not to give the award to Osama, in the end calling him a run-of-the-mill terrorist.

See, for example, Cortada and Aspray (2019).

On the history of conspiracy theories in American political thought, see a famous essay, Hofstadter (1964). For a contemporary account, see Hagen (2011).

On the paranormal related to another disaster, the sinking of the Titanic, see Stevenson (1960, 1965).

Wood and Douglas (2013). Emphasis in original. See their literature review for details about this scholarship.

For an ethnography of the 9/11 Truth Movement, see Ellefritz (2014).

See, e.g., Griffin (2004a, b, 2008, 2009, 2011).

For an account of the impact of 9/11 on media coverage of terrorism, see Powell (2011).

When asked why AFU members would want to address 9/11 rumors when the mandate of the group was to debunk urban legends, long-time AFU member Paul Tomblin (2018) responded: “I think AFU saw it saw it as part of our arena to find the truth behind those, as well as behind the vanishing hitchhiker, the baby train, whatever the famous urban legends were. I mean, it was all part of the spectrum of truth, or finding truth.” Tomblin, Paul (2018) (August 2). Oral history conducted by Alexis de Coning for this project.

The entire thread can be read on Google Groups – alt.folklore.urban.

David Emery, “Did a WTC Leaseholder Buy Terrorism Insurance Just Before 9/11? (originally entitled Rubble Indemnity) http://www.snopes.com/wtc-terrorism-insurance/ published 14 September 2016, updated 11 September 2018. All of the URLs referenced in this section were originally accessed in a period of a few days in mid-June 2017 and were revisited in November 2018.

David Mikkelson, September 11 Adultery Revelation (originally published as Alibi Bye) http://www.snopes.com/rumors/adultery.asp published 5 October 2001, updated 11 September 2018.

David Mikkelson original (25 March 2015), updated by Barbara Mikkelson (9 August 2015), “Angry Muslim Confronts Cashier Over Flag Pin” http://www.snopes.com/rumors/lapelpin.asp

Mikkelson and Mikkelson, Angry Muslim Confronts Cashier Over Flag Pin.

Barbara Mikkelson, Warning From Terrorist, http://www.snopes.com/rumors/warning.asp originally published 8 January 2006, update 11 December 2015.

David Mikkelson, Women Killed By Poisoned Perfume Samples?, originally published 3 November 2001, updated 4 June 2017, http://www.snopes.com/rumors/perfume.asp

David Mikkelson, Women Killed By Poisoned Perfume Samples?

David Mikkelson, Billy Graham’s Daughter’s Speech, originally published 3 October 2001, updated 9 March 2018 (http://www.snopes.com/rumors/wheregod.asp)

David Mikkelson, Billy Graham’s Daughter’s Speech

For a collection of 9/11 jokes, see Ooze.com (2006). For reflections on the value of dark humor, see Gournelos and Greene (2011); Brottman (2012); Kuipers (2005); and Ellis (2002). On 9/11 and the popular culture of comics, see Dittmer (2005); and Peitz (2013).

David Mikkelson, September 11 Adultery Revelation.

Barbara Mikkelson, Bodies in Airplane Seats Found, published 21 April 2008, http://www.snopes.com/rumors/strapped.asp

Barbara Mikkelson, Bodies in Airplane Seats Found.

Barbara Mikkelson, Osama bin Laden Kidney Disease Rumor, 1 May 2011, http://www.snopes.com/rumors/kidney.asp

Barbara Mikkelson, Osama bin Laden Kidney Disease Rumor.

Barbara Mikkelson, Osama Bin Laden’s Body Washes Ashore, updated 6 May 2011, http://www.snopes.com/rumors/ashore.asp

Barbara Mikkelson, Osama Bin Laden’s Body Washes Ashore.

Barbara Mikkelson, Osama bin Laden Owns Snapple Rumor, updated 21 April 2008. http://www.snopes.com/rumors/snapple.asp

As Barbara Mikkelson explains, the Middle Eastern distribution rights to Snapple were owned at the time of 9/11 by the Binladen Group, which is a part of Osama’s extremely large family, but he apparently had no connection to this company; and, in any event, Cadbury Schweppes, which owns Snapple, severed its relationship with the Binladen Group soon after 9/11.

David Mikkelson, General Pershing on How to Stop Islamic Terrorists (originally appearing as “Pershing the Thought”, originally published 31 October 2001, updated 17 August 2017, http://www.snopes.com/rumors/pershing.asp

David Mikkelson, General Pershing on How to Stop Islamic Terrorists.

David Mikkelson, University Peaceniks, published 9 March 2008, http://www.snopes.com/rumors/egghead.asp

David Mikkelson, University Peaceniks.

Barbara Mikkelson, Osama bin Laden in Utah, last updated 21 April 2008, http://www.snopes.com/rumors/utah.asp

Barbara Mikkelson, Osama bin Laden in Utah.

Barbara Mikkelson, Osama bin Laden Captured, last updated 1 May 2011, http://www.snopes.com/rumors/captured.asp

David Mikkelson, “An Ode to America”, originally published 12 October 2001, updated 3 August 2018, http://www.snopes.com/rumors/soapbox/nistorescu.asp

Barbara Mikkelson, “SaucyJack Letter”, 8 March 2008, http://www.snopes.com/rumors/freezing.asp

Barbara Mikkelson, Dunkin Donuts ‘Celebrating Employees’ Rumor, updated 6 December 2005, http://www.snopes.com/rumors/dunkin.asp

Barbara Mikkelson, Dunkin Donuts ‘Celebrating Employees’ Rumor.

For an empirical study of possible insider trading on the stock market just prior to the 9/11 attacks, see Wong et al. (2011). They argue that there was unusual trading at this time.

Barbara Mikkelson, No Taxis at WTC, last updated 21 April 2008, http://www.snopes.com/rumors/taxi.asp

Barbara Mikkkelson, Oct. 26 Terrorist Attack on Los Angeles Rumor, updated 7 April 2008, http://www.snopes.com/rumors/oct26.asp.

Barbara Mikkkelson, Oct. 26 Terrorist Attack on Los Angeles Rumor.

Barbara Mikkelson, Post 9/11 Baby Boom, updated 7 March 2008, http://www.snopes.com/rumors/babyboom.asp

Barbara Mikkelson, Post 9/11 Baby Boom.

soc.culture.scottish (2001). Discussion thread: “New York Tragedy.” Archived at http://groups.google.com

rec.motorcycles.harley (2001). Discussion thread: “OT: Opinions on what US should do?” http://groups.google.com

Alt.folklore.urban, archived at Google Groups, https://groups.google.com/forum/#!forum/alt.folklore.urban, the thread is entitled “Apology”, ending September 15, 2001. In subsequent endnotes, we simply give the name and the month and day of the thread (All are from year 2001.). There are search tools on Google Groups that help one to find the appropriate thread.

“Apology”, thread completed September 15.

“Enemies”, thread completed 9/17.

“Proposal for the Group”, thread completed 9/17.

“BOJJ, etc”, thread completed 9/29.

“Rural Reality: Flight 93 Shot Down,” thread completed 10/4.

“Reflections on a date which will live in infamy”, thread ending 9/24.

“Rural Reality,” thread completed 10/4.

“Eleven Eleven,” thread completed 10/3.

“Clear Channel will protect your tender sensibilities,” thread completed 10/4.

“Stolen Verizon Trucks: Latest hoax/legend,” thread completed 10/6.

“Nostradamus Folklore,” thread completed 9/24.

Barbara Mikkelson, Dunkin Donuts ‘Celebrating Employees’ Rumor.

David Mikkelson, Did Budweiser Pull Their Product from a Store Where Arabs Celebrated the 9/11 Attacks?, originally published as “This Bud’s Not for You”, originally published 18 October 2001, updated 10 September 2018, http://www.snopes.com/rumors/budweiser.asp

Smith et al. (2010). Coca-Cola has long been the target of various rumors and urban legends, most frequently that it has bottled rodents in its products. See Cortada and Aspray (2019).

Frank (2004). For another thoughtful essay about the issues involved in archiving visual materials related to 9/11, see Hathaway (2005). Hathaway writes about the meaning of the photoshops discussed in this section and other visual responses to 9/11 that circulated online after the attacks: “Is it possible, I wondered, to come to any conclusions about the meaning of a piece of electronic lore when it arrives in your inbox with little, if any, introduction by the sender, and when the usual performance cues or other contextual information that might hint at the sender’s motivation are absent? Do we receive e-lore in a contextual vacuum that the recipient must then “fill in” in order to make sense of the message? How do pre-existing contexts and identity markers affect the way we receive and interpret these items?” Hathaway also notes that while it may seem that textual jokes will have more limited geographic play because of linguistic constraints, somewhat surprisingly, she found with showing American versions of 9/11 photoshops to German students, that “visual jokes evoke a broader range of connotations and interpretations.”

See the Wikipedia article on Tourist Guy to understand the history and spread of this Internet meme.

Aronson, Jay D. 2016. Who Owns the Dead? The Science and Politics of Death at Ground Zero. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.CrossRef

Behe, George. 1988. Titanic: Psychic Forewarnings of a Tragedy. New York: Antiquarian Press.

Bergen, Peter L. 2011. The Longest War: The Enduring Conflict Between America and al-Qaeda. New York: Free Press.

Bonaparte, Marie. 1947. Myths of War. London: Imago Publishing.

Brottman, Mikita. 2012. What’s So Funny About 9/11. Chronicle Review, February 12, Chronicle of Higher Education. https://www.chronicle.com/article/Whats-So-Funny-About-9-11-/130708. Accessed 2 Dec 2017.

Burger, Peter. 2009. The Smiley Gang Panic: Ethnic Legends About Gang Rape in the Netherlands in the Wake of 9/11. Western Folklore 68 (2/3): 275–295.

Campion-Vincent, Veronique. 2003. The Enemy Within: From Evil Others to Evil Elites. Ethnologia Europaea 33 (2): 23–31.

Cortada, James W., and William Aspray. 2019. Fake News Nation: The Long History of Lies and Misrepresentations in America. Lanham: Rowman & Littlefield.

Degh, Linda. 2001. Legend and Belief. Bloomington/Indianapolis: Indiana University Press.

DeLillo, Don. 2008. Falling Man. New York: Scribner.

DiMarco, Damon. 2007. Tower Stories: An Oral History of 9/11. 2nd ed. Santa Monica: Santa Monica Press.

Dittmer, Jason. 2005. Captain America’s Empire: Reflections on Identity, Popular Culture, and Post-9/11 Geopolitics. Annals of the Association of American Geographers 95 (3): 639.CrossRef

Dutta-Bergman, Mohan J. 2006. Community Participation and Internet Use After September 11: Complementarity in Channel Consumption. Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication 11 (2): 469–484.CrossRef

Dwyer, Jim, and Kevin Flynn. 2004. 102 Minutes: The Untold Story of the Fight to Survive Inside the Twin Towers. New York: Times Books.

Ellefritz, Richard G. 2014. Discourse Among the Truthers and Deniers of 9/11: Movement-Countermovement Dynamics and the Discursive Field of the 9/11 Truth Movement. PhD Dissertation, Oklahoma State University. https://911inacademia.files.wordpress.com/2011/01/ellefritz-osu-phd-thesis.pdf. Accessed 18 July 2018.

Ellis, Bill. 2002. Making a Big Apple Crumble: The Role of Humor in Constructing a Global Response to Disaster. New Directions in Folklore 6. https://web.archive.org/web/20050303174535/http:/www.temple.edu:80/isllc/newfolk/bigapple/bigapple1.html. Accessed 3 Aug 2018.

Foer, Jonathan Safran. 2006. Extremely Loud and Incredibly Close. Wilmington: Mariner Books.

Foot, Kirsten, Barbara Warnick, and Steven M. Schneider. 2005. Web-Based Memorializing After September 11: Toward a Conceptual Framework. Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication 11 (11): 72–96.CrossRef

Frank, Russell. 2004. When the Going Gets Tough, the Tough Go Photoshopping: September 11 and the Newslore of Vengeance and Victimization. New Media & Society 6 (5): 633–658.CrossRef

Gerould, G. H. (1908/2000). The Grateful Dead: The History of a Folk Story. Chicago: University of Illinois Press

Goldstein, Diane E. 2009. The Sounds of Silence: Foreknowledge, Miracles, Suppressed Narratives, and Terrorism – What Not Telling Might Tell Us. Western Folklore 68 (2,3 Spring, Summer): 235–255.

Gournelos, Ted, and Vivica S. Greene, eds. 2011. A Decade of Dark Humor: How Comedy, Irony and Satire Shaped Post-9/11 America. Jackson: University Press of Mississippi.

Gray, Richard. 2011. After the Fall: American Literature Since 9/11. Hoboken: Wiley.CrossRef

Greenspan, Elizabeth L. 2003. Spontaneous Memorials, Museums, and Public History: Memorialization of September 11, 2001 at the Pentagon. Public Historian 25: 129–132.CrossRef

Griffin, David Ray. 2004a. The New Pearl Harbor: Disturbing Questions About the Bush Administration and 9/11. Northampton: Interlink Pub Group.

———. 2004b. The 9/11 Commission Report: Omissions and Distortions. Ithaca: Olive Branch Press.

———. 2008. The New Pearl Harbor Revisited: 9/11, the Cover-Up, and the Expose. Northampton: Interlink Pub Group.

———. 2009. The Mysterious Collapse of World Trade Center 7: Why the Final Official Report About 9/11 is Unscientific and False. Ithaca: Olive Branch Press.

———. 2011. 9/11 Ten Years Later: When State Crimes Against Democracy Succeed. Ithaca: Olive Branch Press.

Hagen, Kurtis. 2011. Conspiracy Theories and Stylized Facts. Journal for Peace and Justice Studies 21: 3–22.CrossRef

Hathaway, Rosemary V. 2005. ‘Life in the TV’: The Visual Nature of 9/11 Lore and Its Impact on Vernacular Response. Journal of Folklore Research 42 (1): 33–56.

Hays, Charles A. 2011. The 9/11 Decade: Social Imaginary and Healing Virtual Community Fracture. Global Media Journal – Canadian Edition 4 (2): 79–94.

Heimbaugh, J. R. 2001. Urban Legend Zeitgeist. https://web.archive.org/web/20090312070141/http:/tafkac.org:80/ulz/. Accessed 3 Aug 2018.

Henze, Doug. 2014. Andrea Hachem: President and CEO, Midfield Concession Enterprises, Inc. Crain’s Detroit Business, June 1; Updated March 16, 2017. http://www.crainsdetroit.com/article/20140601/FEATURE04/306019987/andrea-hachem. Accessed 28 June 2017.

Hofstadter, Richard. 1964. The Paranoid Style in American Politics. Harper’s Magazine, 77–86.

Huddy, L., and S. Feldman. 2011. Americans Respond Politically to 9/11: Understanding the Impact of the Terrorist Attacks and their Aftermath. American Psychologist 66 (6): 455–467.CrossRef

Ibrahim, Raymond. 2007. The Al Qaeda Reader. New York: Broadway Books.

Jackson, Kathy Merlock. 2005. Psychological First Aid: The Hallmark Company, Greeting Cards, and the Response to September 11. The Journal of American Culture 28 (1): 11–28.MathSciNetCrossRef

Kean, T. 2011. The 9/11 Commission Report: Final Report of the National Commission on Terrorist Attacks Upon the United States. Washington, DC: US Government Printing Office.

Kuipers, Giselinde. 2005. ’Where Was King Kong When We Needed Him?’: Public Discourse, Digital Disaster Jokes, and the Function of Laughter After 9/11. Journal of American Culture 28: 70–84.CrossRef

Langlois, Janet L. 2005. “Celebrating Arabs”: Tracing Legend and Rumor in Post-9/11 Detroit. The Journal of American Folklore 118 (468): 219–236.CrossRef

Laqueur, Thomas. 2015. The Work of the Dead: A Cultural History of Mortal Remains. Princeton: Princeton University Press.CrossRef

Lindahl, Carl. 2009. Faces in the Fire: Images of Terror in Oral Marchen and in the Wake of 9/11. Western Folklore 68 (2/3, Spring/Summer): 209–234.

Linenthal, Edward T., Jonathan Hyman, and Christiane Gruber. 2013. The Landscapes of 9/11: A Photographer’s Journey. Austin: University of Texas Press.

Meder, Theo. 2009. They are Among Us and They Are Against Us: Contemporary Horror Stories About Muslims and Immigrants in the Netherlands. Western Folklore 68 (2/3, Spring/Summer): 257–274.

Melnick, Jeffrey. 2009. 9/11 Culture. Hoboken: Wiley.

Morgan, Matthew J., ed. 2009. The Impact of 9/11 on Politics and War. New York: Palgrave Macmillan.

Ooze.com. 2006. This 9/11 Joke Collection Will Save America! After 5 Years, You Can Laugh! It’s Official. http://www.ooze.com/articles/9-11-jokes.html. Accessed 12 Feb 2017.

Pedersen, Peter Ole. 2013. The Never-Ending Disaster: 9/11 Conspiracy Theory and the Integration of Activist Documentary on Video Websites. Acta University Sapientiae, Film and Media Studies 6: 49–64.CrossRef

Peitz, William. 2013. Captain America: The Epitome of American Values and Identity. Senior Capstone Thesis, Arcadia University. https://scholarworks.arcadia.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?referer=&httpsredir=1&article=1003&context=senior_theses. Accessed 5 Dec 2017.

Powell, Kimberly A. 2011. Framing Islam: An Analysis of U.S. Media Coverage of Terrorism Since 9/11. Communication Studies 62 (1): 90–112.CrossRef

Pyszczynski, T., S. Solomon, and J. Greenberg. 2003. In the Wake of 9/11: The Psychology of Terror. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.CrossRef

Rosenblatt, Adam. 2015. Digging for the Disappeared: Forensic Science After Atrocity. Palo Alto: Stanford University Press.

Smith, Dennis. 2003. Report from Ground Zero. New York: Plume.

Smith, Trisha L., et al. 2010. The Grateful Terrorist: Folklore as Psychological Coping Mechanism. Voices: The Journal of New York Folklore 36 (Spring–Summer): 23–27.

Stempel, Carl, Thomas Hargrove, and Guido H. Stempel III. 2007. Media Use, Social Structure, and Belief in 9/11 Conspiracy Theories. Journalism & Mass Communication Quarterly 84 (2, Summer): 353–372.CrossRef

Stevenson, Ian. 1960. A Review and Analysis of Paranormal Experiences Connected with the Sinking of the Titanic. Journal of the American Society for Psychical Research 54: 153–171.

———. 1965. Seven More Paranormal Experiences Associated with the Sinking of the Titanic. Journal of the American Society for Psychical Research 59: 211–225.

Waldman, Amy. 2011. The Submission. London: Picador.

Wong, Wing-Keung, Howard E. Thompson, and Kweehong Teh. 2011. Was There Abnormal Trading in the S&P 500 Index Options Prior to the September 11 Attacks? Multinational Finance Journal 15 (1/2): 1–46.CrossRef

Wood, Michael J., and Karen M. Douglas. 2013. “What about building 7?” A Social Psychological Study of Online Discussion of 9/11 Conspiracy Theories. Frontiers in Psychology 4: 409, https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fpsyg.2013.00409/full. Accessed 18 July 2018.CrossRef

Wright, Lawrence. 2006. The Looming Tower: Al-Qaeda and the Road to 9/11. New York: Alfred A. Knopf.

Yocom, Margaret. 2006. ‘We’ll Watch Out for Liza and the Kids’: Spontaneous Memorials and Personal Response at the Pentagon, 2001. In Spontaneous Shrines and the Public Memorialization of Death, ed. Jack Santino. New York: Palgrave Macmillan.

Zaslow, Jeffrey. 2002. Arab’s Restaurant is Nearly Ruined by Rumor of Celebration on Sept. 11. Wall Street Journal , 13 March, Reprinted Online by Bint Jbeil at http://www.bintjbeil.com/E/news/020313_sheik.html. Accessed 28 June 2017.

Zeitlin, Steve, and Ilana Harlow. 2001. 9/11: Commemorative Art, Ritual, and Story. The Journal of New York Folklore 27 (Fall–Winter). Available online at http://www.nyfolklore.org/pubs/voic27-3-4/dnstate.html. Accessed 2 Dec 2017.

Title: Urban Legends and Rumors Concerning the September 11 Attacks
Authors: William Aspray
James W. Cortada
Publisher: Springer International Publishing
Book: From Urban Legends to Political Fact-Checking
Print ISBN: 978-3-030-22951-1

Electronic ISBN: 978-3-030-22952-8

Copyright Year: 2019
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-22952-8_3

Springer Professional

Abstract

Please log in to get access to your license.

Dont have a licence yet? Then find out more about our products and how to get one now:

Springer Professional "Wirtschaft+Technik"

Springer Professional "Technik"

Springer Professional "Wirtschaft"

Premium Partner