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2022 | Book

Virtual and Remote Control Tower

Research, Design, Development, Validation, and Implementation

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About this book

This book presents the interdisciplinary and international “Virtual and Remote Tower” research and development work. It has been carried out since nearly twenty years with the goal of replacing the conventional aerodrome control tower by a new “Remote Tower Operation” (RTO) work environment for enhancing work efficiency and safety and reducing cost. The revolutionary human–system interface replaces the out-of-windows view by an augmented vision video panorama that allows for remote aerodrome traffic control without a physical tower building. It enables the establishment of a (multiple) remote control center (MRTO, RTC) that may serve several airports from a central location. The first (2016) edition of this book covered all aspects from preconditions over basic research and prototype development to initial validation experiments with field testing. Co-edited and -authored by DLR RTO-team members Dr. Anne Papenfuss and Jörn Jakobi, this second extended edition with nearly doubled number of chapters includes further important aspects of the international follow-up work towards the RTO-deployment. Focus of the extension with new contributions from ENRI/Japan and IAA/Dublin with Cranfield University, is on MRTO, workload, implementation, and standardization. Specifically, the two revised and nine new Chapters put the focus on inclusion of augmented vision and virtual reality technologies, human-in-the-loop simulation for quantifying workload and deriving minimum (technical) requirements according to standards of the European Organization for Civil Aviation Equipment (EUROCAE), and MRTO implementation and certification. Basics of optical / video design, workload measures, and advanced psychophysical data analysis are presented in four appendices.

Table of Contents

Frontmatter

Preconditions

Frontmatter
Introduction: Basics, History, and Overview
Abstract
Since more than fifteen years an increasing interest is observed worldwide in remote control of low traffic airports by means of some kind of virtual control tower. As outlined in the Foreword by Steve Ellis and in the Preface to the 1st ed. of this book, “Virtual Tower” depicts the idea of replacing the out-of-the-window (OTW) view from a conventional control tower on airports by a Remote Tower Control Center (RTC) relying on advanced video, image processing, and virtual reality technologies. It eliminates the need for direct visual observation and consequently the requirement for a costly tower building at an exposed location in visual distance from the runway. The virtual/remote tower idea is connected with a paradigm change in air transportation due to the growth of low-cost carriers and the corresponding increased usage of small airports which nevertheless require air traffic services (ATS). Cost constraints require new ideas and concepts to meet these requirements, and the control of one or more small airports from a remote location without the need of a direct visual observation from a local tower is one of these visions. After providing in Sect. 1 of this introduction some basics of air traffic control in the airport vicinity, we continue in Sect. 2 with a personal account of Virtual and Remote Control Tower research from the DLR perspective. The section covers the time frame from initial ideas around 2001 to 2014, including advanced video and VR technologies, addressing first operational shadow mode tests of the HMI prototype, and finishing with patent licensing to an industrial partner. In Sect. 3 the focus is on the development and implementation phase between 2010 and 2020, covering the important aspect of multiple remote tower (MRT) operation and standardization within the growing international context. The concluding Sect. 4 contains an overview on the twenty-two Chapters and four technical Appendices of this second edition of the Virtual and Remote Tower book.
Norbert Fürstenau, Jörn Jakobi, Anne Papenfuss
Visual Features Used by Airport Tower Controllers: Some Implications for the Design of Remote or Virtual Towers
Abstract
Visual motion and other visual cues are used by tower controllers to provide important support for their control tasks at and near airports. These cues are particularly important for anticipated separation. Some of them, which we call visual features, have been identified from structured interviews and discussions with 24 active air traffic controllers or supervisors. The visual information that these features provide has been analyzed with respect to possible ways it could be presented at a remote tower that does not allow a direct view of the airport. Two types of remote towers are possible. One could be based on a plan-view, map-like computer-generated display of the airport and its immediate surroundings. An alternative would present a composited perspective view of the airport and its surroundings, possibly provided by an array of radially mounted cameras positioned at the airport in lieu of a tower. An initial more detailed analyses of one of the specific landing cues identified by the controllers, landing deceleration, is provided as a basis for evaluating how controllers might detect and use it. Understanding other such cues will help identify the information that may be degraded or lost in a remote or virtual tower not located at the airport. Some initial suggestions how some of the lost visual information may be presented in displays are mentioned. Many of the cues considered involve visual motion, though some important static cues are also discussed.
Stephen R. Ellis, Dorion B. Liston
Detection and Recognition for Remote Tower Operations
Abstract
Remote control of airports implies application of cameras to replace direct visual observation from airport control towers by projection of the airport and its traffic in a remote control centre. Surprisingly, hardly any literature can be found to list the required visual objects and phenomena for tower control, i.e. the visual cues that need to be seen for tower control. The composition and validation of the so-called visual cue list for tower control is the subject of this study. Tower controller task analysis was used to compose a ‘long-list’ of visual features. The long-list has been presented to a group of operational air traffic controllers to test the need and the circumstances to observe these visual cues. Our analysis shows that most of the visual cues are useful for operational tower control but are not strictly mandatory for applying the rules of the International Civil Aviation Organization. The requirement for visual image resolution of remote tower control is the second subject of the paper. Our analysis leads to definition of a ‘short-list’ of important safety-related visual objects and phenomena for tower control and the conclusion that state-of-the-art media are just able to provide the required image resolution for visual detection but not for recognition.
F. J. van Schaik, J. J. M. Roessingh, G. Lindqvist, K. Fält
Remote Tower Research in the United States
Abstract
The United States (U.S.) Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) has been conducting remote tower research since 2006. The focus of this effort has changed multiple times since the inception of the research. As a result, a number of different remote tower concepts were developed and validated to varying degrees. These included the Staffed NextGen Tower concept for all sized airports, the Select Services Concept for non-towered airports, and the Full Services Concept for non-towered airports. In 2013, the direction of the research changed again and the FAA began to work on a Colorado initiative that envisions the use of their Wide Area Multilateration (WAM) for improving services at the non-towered ski airports in Colorado. Currently the FAA is also initiating the evaluation of the camera-based concept at Leesburg, Virginia. All these efforts are described in the following sections.
Vilas Nene
Remotely-Operated AFIS in Japan
Abstract
The Japan Civil Aviation Bureau has been providing remote aerodrome flight information (advisory) services (remote AFIS) to small aerodromes such as island and local airports over 40 years. This remote AFIS is called “Remote Air-Ground communication” (“RAG” for short)”. RAG services are provided to 36 small aerodromes in Japan. In RAG operation, an aeronautical flight information services operator (AFISO) at a Flight Service Centre (FSC) gives information to aircraft pilots through VHF radio communication. The RAG working position has equipment including a flight information display, a surveillance display (air route surveillance radar and/or wide-area multilateration, since small aerodromes do not have approach or surface movement radars), weather information, and a video display of images from a PTZ camera and/or 180-degree coverage fixed camera at the aerodrome. In some cases, an AFISO is able to handle two small aerodromes simultaneously when the traffic volume is low. The RAG working positions for multiple aerodromes are equipped with two video circuits, one for each aerodrome. The AFISO usually monitors traffic at each airport by a combination of radar and the video display. In this chapter, we give an overview of the RAG service system functions and typical operations processes. We also discuss the operational issues with the existing equipment and services that led to investigations of Remote Tower technology for the next system.
Satoru Inoue, Mark Brown

Development and Field Testing of Remote Tower Prototype

Frontmatter
Remote Tower Experimental System with Augmented Vision Videopanorama
Abstract
The goal of the research described in this chapter was the development and setup of an initial experimental version of the “Virtual Tower” with focus on replacement of the direct view out-of-windows. Specifically, the intermediate step of a Remote Tower Operation (RTO) work environment for remote surveillance and control of small airports is described which served for verifying the main functionalities. A structured work and task analysis detailed the requirements on the new human–machine interface (HMI) and emphasized the “far view” out of the tower windows as important information source. Consequently a digital high-resolution videopanorama system was implemented as central HMI-component to replace the airport tower out-the-window view. Field tests using this reconstructed panorama indicated the effective visual resolution for object detection to show reasonable agreement with theoretical predictions under ideal conditions. As addition to the panorama an integrated zoom function provided an enlarged narrow-angle “foveal” component by means of a remotely controlled pan-tilt-zoom camera with tracking functionality. The digital reconstruction of the far view allowed for integration of “video-see-through” augmented vision features by integration and superposition of e.g. weather and electronic surveillance data, and it allowed for video replay of stored surveillance information.
Norbert Fürstenau, Markus Schmidt
Remote Tower Prototype System and Automation Perspectives
Abstract
In this chapter we describe the development of the video panorama based Remote Tower prototype system as the main goal of the second DLR-RTO project (RAiCe, Remote Airport traffic Control Center). One focus was on the implementation of an advanced RTO-environment at a second airport (besides a comparable system at the Research airport Braunschweig). It was used for the worldwide first RTO-validation experiments with controlled flight scenarios for directly comparing RTO versus tower conditions using a DLR test aircraft (see separate chapters “Which Metrics Provide the Insight Needed?​ A Selection of Remote Tower Evaluation Metrics to Support a Remote Tower Operation Concept Validation” and “Model Based Analysis of Two-Alternative Decision Errors in a Videopanorama-Based Remote Tower Work Position”). The advanced RTO system served for analysing the performance of the near-prototype level of hard and software solutions and for preparing and executing passive shadow mode field test with participation of domain experts for providing more realistic operational conditions. We will describe the design and setup of this RTO-system which was realized in cooperation with the German air-navigation service provider DFS. A detailed work analysis with DFS domain experts during workshops and RTO simulations provided a breakdown of the specific requirement specifications. The analysis showed that it would be impossible to consider all of these requirements in an RTO design within a reasonable cost frame. This concerned the selection of type, numbers and focal width of cameras, their visual resolution, contrast, dynamic range and field of view, zoom functions and the corresponding number and type of displays or projection systems for the reconstructed panoramic view. E.g., the vertical FOV turned out as a crucial factor, the visual surveillance up to an altitude of 1000 ft. above the runway in the panoramic view as one of the basic design condition. In the present chapter we will describe hard- and software aspects of the system design, its setup, initial tests and verification, as precondition for the RTO-validation experiments. Furthermore we include an outlook on the automation potential using image processing. The requirement for automation of functions such as pan-tilt zoom camera based object tracking via movement detection was derived from the results of validation experiments described in chapters “Model Based Analysis of Two-Alternative Decision Errors in a Videopanorama-Based Remote Tower Work Position”, “Multiple Remote Tower Simulation Environment”, and “Assessing Operational Validity of Remote Tower Control in High-Fidelity Simulation”.
Markus Schmidt, Michael Rudolph, Norbert Fürstenau
Integration of (Surveillance) Multilateration Sensor Data into a Remote Tower System
Abstract
Information from a surveillance sensor can be integrated into a Remote Tower System. Surveillance sensors provide position and altitude information that can be used to supplement optical sensor tracking, and a cooperative surveillance sensor further provides aircraft identification that can be correlated with flight information. In the Remote Tower research system developed by the Electronic Navigation Research Institute (ENRI), integration with a multilateral sensor allows integrated flight information to be displayed in a label (tag) associated with each aircraft, and surveillance position is combined with optical sensor information to assist automatic object-following by a PTZ camera function, which improves its performance particularly in low visibility conditions. To integrate surveillance information with optical target tracking accurately, calibration or correction techniques such as georeferencing (3D-2D mapping) are required. This chapter gives details on the following specific topics: (1) correlation of optically detected and tracked objects with surveillance sensor targets and labelling, (2) PTZ object following, and (3) mapping between two-dimensional screen coordinates and real-world three-dimensional PTZ coordinates.
Satoru Inoue, Mark Brown, Yasuyuki Kakubari
Which Metrics Provide the Insight Needed? A Selection of Remote Tower Evaluation Metrics to Support a Remote Tower Operation Concept Validation
Abstract
This chapter describes the metrics for the validation of a Remote Tower Control workplace. The study shows how Air Traffic Control Officers (ATCOs) observe traffic from a Tower Control Working Position at Airport Erfurt-Weimar in comparison to a Remote Controller Working Position. Shadow-mode trials were used to cover perceptual, operational, and human factors aspects of a Remote Tower System, including a live video panorama and a research aircraft. The aircraft was used to fly different maneuvers within the aerodrome. These maneuvers allow insights on the detectability of an aircraft within different distances from the tower and the gathering of operation information about aircraft status. In addition, a vehicle was used to position static objects on the airfield to determine the detectability of these objects for different distances to the Control Tower (RTO-camera system). Eight ATCOs from the DFS participated in the validation exercise. Time-synchronized questionnaires for the controller working position remote (CWP-remote) and the controller working position tower (CWP-tower) were applied, addressing operationally relevant questions to the ATCOs. The validation exercise targets the evaluation of metrics that could help standardize the process of testing Remote Controller Working Positions. The results consider expense of realization, comparability and feasibility as major classifications for the used metrics. Further an approach for combining the classification into one score is presented, to rank the metrics in relation to each other.
Maik Friedrich
Model Based Analysis of Two-Alternative Decision Errors in a Videopanorama-Based Remote Tower Work Position
Abstract
Initial analysis of Remote Control Tower (RTO) field test with a prototype videopanorama system under quasi operational conditions (Friedrich and Möhlenbrink in ATM, 2013) has shown performance deficits quantified by two-alternative aircraft maneuver discrimination tasks (Fürstenau et al. in EPCE/HCII 2013, Part II, Lecture Notes in Artificial Intelligence (LNAI), pp. 105–114, 2013). Here we present the quantitative analysis of these results using the complementary methods of Bayes inference, signal detection theory (SDT) with parametric and non-parametric discriminabilities d’ and A, and application of time pressure theory (Fürstenau et al. in EPCE/HCII 2013, Lecture Notes in Artificial Intelligence (LNAI), pp. 143–154, 2014). RTO-controller working position (CWP-) performance was directly compared with that one of the conventional tower-CWP with direct out-of-windows view by means of simultaneous aircraft maneuver observations within the control zone at both operator positions. For this analysis we took into account correct (Hit rate), incorrect (False Alarms, FA) answers to discrimination tasks, and we took into account non-answers for a pessimistic quantification of RTO-performance. As initial working hypothesis this lead to the concept of time pressure (TP) as one major source of the measured response errors. A fit of experimental error rates with an error function derived from the Hendy et al. information processing (IP/TP)-hypothesis (Hendy et al. in Human Factors 39:30–47, 1997) provides some evidence in support of this model. We expect the RTO-performance deficits to decrease with the introduction of certain automation features to reduce time pressure and improve the usability of the videopanorama system.
Norbert Fürstenau

Human-in-the-Loop Simulation for RTO Workload and Design

Frontmatter
Multiple Remote Tower Simulation Environment
Abstract
The research on remote tower operation faces multiple challenges. Separate traffic flows are getting dependent, the design of the tower controller working places needs to be revised and new sensor technique must be tested. In accordance to this great bandwidth of design and adaption works a development and validation platform is of substantial need. Among the validation tools recommended by the European operational concept validation methodology, simulations play a crucial role. Within the present chapter a comprehensive simulation approach is discussed. This approach connects fast-time and human-in-the-loop simulation to determine traffic effects and the consequences for the air traffic controllers. Moreover, a transfer into the field using passive shadow mode tests is provided, replacing simulation components step by step with operational data.
S. Schier-Morgenthal
Assessing Operational Validity of Remote Tower Control in High-Fidelity Simulation
Abstract
In this chapter results from simulation studies are presented which were conducted to assess the operational validity of the remote tower concept at a very early maturity level. The goal was to gain empirical evidence to lead further developmental activities, and to learn about critical design issues and human factors of the remote tower control concept. A high-fidelity simulation study with a sample of twelve tower controllers was conducted to assess operational validity of an experimental workplace for remote tower control (RTC). This set-up was compared to a simulation workplace representing a conventional tower. The core of the experimental RTC workplace is a panoramic display, presenting high resolution video data of the remotely controlled airport. Besides the feasibility of the concept, the study addressed the relevance of the view outside the tower window for air traffic controllers decision making and the benefit of information augmentation. Two functionalities were tested, being highlighting aircraft based on automatic movement detection as well as overlay of aircraft call signs. Eye tracking, questionnaire, and interview data were gathered. Results indicate that the concept is valid for control of smaller airports with little air traffic. The augmentation of call signs onto the video panorama reduced head-down times for the radar display.
Anne Papenfuss, Christoph Moehlenbrink
Model Based Analysis of Subjective Mental Workload During Multiple Remote Tower Human-In-The-Loop Simulations
Abstract
We report on the analysis of subjective mental workload (WL) and objective task load (TL) measurements of a Multiple Remote Tower Operation (MRTO) simulation experiment with 12 air traffic control officers (ATCos). The experiment was performed as part of a project for the development of a remote tower center (RTC) for the centralized control of several airports (APs) from afar (Fürstenau, Virtual and remote control tower. Springer, Switzerland, 2016). Specifically, we were interested in the question if being responsible for two or more traffic systems at the same time, causes workload independently from actual traffic load. Subjective WL was measured by means of the one-dimensional quasi real time Instantaneous Self Assessment method (five level ISA scale) whereas objective TL data were obtained online by monitoring ATCo’s communication with pilots (radio calls frequency RC and duration RD), both dependent on the environmental traffic load n. In addition to variance analysis (ANOVA) for quantifying linear correlations (WL/TL~n) a new cognitive resource limitation model for nonlinear (logistic) regression-based parameter estimates was applied to the data (Fürstenau et al., Theor Issues Ergon Sci, 2020). ANOVA results supported initially stated hypotheses on significant increase of subjective and objective WL/TL measures with increasing traffic flow n, as well as a WL increase under transition from one controller per airport (baseline) to two-airport control by a single ATCo (Lange et al., Analyse des Zusammenhangs zwischen dem Workload von Towerlotsen und objektiven Arbeitsparametern, 2011). Furthermore, a hypothesized mediator effect of communication TL was determined, mediating the dependency of ISA-WL on traffic load n. The extension of the of the (linear) ANOVA by the (nonlinear) logistic model-based analysis of ISA(n) and RC(n) data allowed for the quantification of theoretically founded WL/TL sensitivity (ν/ρ) and bias parameters, the latter characterizing the difference between work conditions. The validity of the regression-based parameter estimates was supported by the theoretical prediction of model parameters based on prior information (e.g. scale limits). Estimates of the nonlinear model parameters quantified the dissociation between the subjective WL and objective communication load measures. Derived from the assumption of cognitive resource limitation the logistic model provides a theoretical foundation for the discussion of the initially stated hypotheses regarding WL/TL characteristics. Specifically, a stimulus (RC)—response (ISA) power law analysis according to (Fürstenau and Radüntz, Power law model for subjective mental workload and validation through air-traffic control human-in-the-loop simulation, 2021) allowed via the Stevens exponent γ(=ρ/ν) to formalize and quantify the assumed mediator role of the objective communication TL between traffic flow and the subjective ISA-WL response.
Norbert Fürstenau, Anne Papenfuss
Changing of the Guards: The Impact of Handover Procedures on Human Performance in Multiple Remote Tower Operations
Abstract
Multiple Remote Tower Operations (MRTO) change the way air traffic is managed. In this concept, air traffic control officers (ATCOs) operate several aerodromes simultaneously from a specially designed working position, also referred to as a multiple remote tower module (MRTM). This change in operations also introduces significant changes in the ATCOs’ workflow and cognitive demands. In theory MRTO can facilitate the ATCOs’ ability to balance their mental workload through a flexible allocation of aerodromes to each MRTM, but new procedures need to be implemented to enable such flexible allocations: Appropriate handover procedures are needed to transfer aerodromes between MRTMs and their operators. This paper investigated the feasibility of handover procedures during simulated air traffic control as a mitigation to counteract inappropriate mental workload. In a human-in-the-loop real-time simulation, six ATCOs completed traffic scenarios with or without handover via two MRTM, dealing with a total of three aerodromes. Descriptive data showed no adverse short-term effects caused by the handovers and indicated possible beneficial long-term effects on cognitive capacity and safety. The handover procedures were overall feasible and accepted by the ATCOs, as a strategy to better balance mental workload in MRTO.
Anneke Hamann, Jörn Jakobi
Which Minimum Visual Tracking Performance is Needed in a Remote Tower Optical System?
Abstract
To maintain or even increase the ATCO’s situation awareness at a remote tower working position, augmentation features are introduced, such as automated tracking of objects. Moving objects (aircraft, vehicles, persons, etc.) the ATCO is interested in are tracked and augmented by this function. However, a tracking function is never reliable by 100% and nuisance tracking information occur, information, which is not of operational relevance and is disturbing to the ATCO. Not only human performance gains by “wanted” tracking information but also losses due to “nuisance” tracking information are to be expected. This paper investigates the effect of visual tracking function in a Remote Tower Optical System on ATCO’s acceptance and effects on situation awareness and workload. Erroneous tracking performance will be discussed within the framework of a response matrix (e.g. Wickens, Elementary Signal Detection Theory, Oxford University Press (2002) and Appendix B). It collects the correct and false (system) responses as conditional probabilities for two alternative situations (object to be tracked/object not to be tracked), or for signal and noise. In a human-in-the-loop real time simulation, seven ATCOs performed a realistic traffic scenario. The study was conducted at Remote Tower laboratory at DLR in Braunschweig. As an experimental condition the performance of the visual tracking was operationalized by the number of nuisance tracking indication: (1) none (no visual tracking (baseline)), (2) low, (3) medium, and (4) large number. The results show that ATCOs very much appreciate visual tracking information. ATCOs can more easily detect critical traffic situation, which increases their situation awareness and safety. Further on, acceptance is rather high and workload on a moderate level, and both parameters behave rather robustly, even when the number of nuisance tracking information increases.
Jörn Jakobi, Kim Laura Meixner
Videopanorama Frame Rate Requirements Derived from Visual Discrimination of Deceleration During Simulated Aircraft Landing
Abstract
In order to determine the required visual frame rate (FR) for minimizing prediction errors with out-the-window video displays at remote/virtual airport towers, thirteen active air traffic controllers viewed high dynamic fidelity simulations of landing aircraft and decided whether aircraft would stop as if to be able to make a turnoff or whether a runway excursion would be expected. The viewing conditions and simulation dynamics replicated visual rates and environments of transport aircraft landing at small commercial airports. The required frame rate was estimated using Bayes inference on prediction errors by linear FR-extrapolation of event probabilities conditional on predictions (stop, no-stop). Furthermore estimates were obtained from exponential model fits to the parametric and non-parametric perceptual discriminabilities d′ and A (average area under ROC-curves) as dependent on FR. Decision errors are biased towards preference of overshoot and appear due to illusionary increase in speed at low frames rates. Both Bayes and A—extrapolations yield a framerate requirement of 35 < FRmin < 40 Hz. When comparing with published results (Claypool and Claypool Multimedia Systems 13:3–17, 2007) on shooter game scores the model based d′(FR)-extrapolation exhibits the best agreement and indicates even higher FRmin > 40 Hz for minimizing decision errors. Definitive recommendations require further experiments with FR > 30 Hz.
Norbert Fürstenau, Stephen R. Ellis
Which Minimum Video Frame Rate is Needed in a Remote Tower Optical System?
Abstract
Bandwidth, often limited and costly, plays a crucial role in cost-efficient Remote Tower system. Reducing the Video Frame Rate (in the following referred to Frame Rate (FR), expressed in fps, also referred to video update rate (European Organisation for Civil Aviation Equipment. EUROCAE: Minimum aviation system performance specification for remote tower optical systems, ED-240A change 1, EUROCAE, Saint-Denis: 2021)) of the relayed video stream is one parameter to save bandwidth, but at the cost of video quality. Therefore, the present article evaluates how much FR can be reduced without compromising operational performance and human factor issues. In our study, seven Air Traffic Control Officers (ATCOs) watched real air traffic videos, recorded by the Remote Tower field test platform at the German Aerospace Center (DLR e.V.) at Braunschweig-Wolfsburg Airport (BWE). In a passive shadow mode, they executed ATS relevant tasks in four different FR conditions (2, 5, 10 and 15 fps) to objectively measure their visual detection performance and subjectively assess their current physiological state and their perceived video quality and system operability. Study results have shown that by reducing the FR, neither the visual detection performance nor physiological state is impaired. Only the perceived video quality and the perceived system operability dropped by reducing FR down to 2 fps. The findings of the study presented in this chapter will help to better adjust video parameters in bandwidth limited applications in general, and in particular to alleviate large scale deployment of Remote Towers in a safe and cost-efficient way.
Jörn Jakobi, Maria Hagl

Advanced and Multiple RTO: Development, Validation, and Implementation

Frontmatter
The Advanced Remote Tower System and Its Validation
Abstract
The Advanced Remote Tower project (ART) studied enhancements to an existing LFV prototype facility (ROT) for a single airport remotely operated tower: projection on a 360 degrees panorama screen, adding synthesized geographic information and meteorological information, video tracking, fusion of video and radar tracks, labelling, visibility enhancement and surveillance operations with a remotely controlled Pan Tilt Zoom camera. The ART functions have been embedded in the existing Swedish test facility for single airport remote tower operations in Malmö airport Sturup observing Ängelholm traffic about 100 km to the North. These functions were tuned and validated during tests with 15 operational tower air traffic controllers. Emphasis was on the traffic and situation awareness of the tower controllers using remote cameras and a projection system for safe operational tower control, replacing direct view on the airport and its traffic. The validation results give valuable information for further development and operational application even outside the Remote Tower application area.
F. J. van Schaik, J. J. M. Roessingh, J. Bengtsson, G. Lindqvist, K. Fält
Designing and Evaluating a Fusion of Visible and Infrared Spectrum Video Streams for Remote Tower Operations
Abstract
The research project INVIDEON evaluated requirements, technical solutions, and the benefit of fusing visible (VIS) and infrared (IR) spectrum camera streams into a single panorama video stream. In this paper, the design process for developing a usable and accepted fusion is described. As both sensors have strengthens and weaknesses, INVIDEON proposes a fused panorama optimized out of both sensors to be presented to the air traffic service officer (referred to as ‘operator’ in this context). This chapter gives an overview of the project and reports results of the operators’ perception performance with the visual, infrared, and fused panorama as well as results of the acceptance and usability of the INVIDEON solution. Main findings of requirements for fusing VIS and IR camera data for remote tower operations are highlighted and set into context with the air traffic control officer’s (ATCO’s) tasks. A specific fusion approach was developed within the project and evaluated by means of recorded IR and VIS data. For evaluation, a testbed was set up at a regional airport and data representing different visibility conditions were selected out of 70 days data recordings. Six operators participated in the final evaluation. The objectively possible detection performance and the recognition performance of the operator was determined, evaluated, and compared to the theoretical performance derived from the Johnson Criteria. Subjective data on perceived usability, situational awareness, and trust in automation was assessed. Furthermore, qualitative data on Human Machine Interface (HMI) design and optimization potential from debriefings and comments was collected and clustered.
Fabian Reuschling, Anne Papenfuss, Jörn Jakobi, Tim Rambau, Eckart Michaelsen, Norbert Scherer-Negenborn
Planning Remote Multi-airport Control—Design and Evaluation of a Controller-Friendly Assistance System
Abstract
A number of research projects aim at air traffic control independent from the controller’s location and his outside view. In the context of one of these projects—VICTOR (Virtual Control Tower Research Studies), which was initiated by the German air navigation service provider Deutsche Flugsicherung (DFS), a completely new concept of Aerodrome Remote Control Center (ARCC) was investigated. In contrast to previous approaches, the ARCC-concept broadened the monitoring and controlling capabilities of the tower controller towards several airports at the same time. It thereby created new requirements for air traffic control, i.e. an eminent need for planning the air traffic flow of multiple airports. For this additional task the concept of a planning tool was developed, taking into consideration a user-centered approach, the guidelines for usable interfaces and a well perceived user experience. Following these Human Factors standards, our planning tool was developed to be useful and ensure safe handling, but also to look and feel good. For its evaluation, an analytical inspection method, i.e. heuristic evaluation, has been used as well as a questionnaire assessing the aesthetics of the graphical user interface. Eight usability experts assessed the tool, taking notes of any peculiarities and usability problems and carrying out the associated severity-rating. With the help of this methodology, 56 issues were identified and corrected. Furthermore, results from additional qualitative statements of the experts for development and optimisation of the user interface were subsequently used for re-design. In terms of looks, the planning tool scored above average in aesthetics ratings. This chapter briefly introduces the tool and its design, and subsequently focuses on our evaluation procedure and results.
Rodney Leitner, Astrid Oehme
The Certification Processes of Multiple Remote Tower Operations for Single European Sky
Abstract
The European Union project of Single European Sky initiated a reorganization of European airspace and proposed additional measures for air traffic management to achieve the key objectives of improving efficiency and capacity while at the same time enhancing safety. The concept of multiple remote tower operation is that air traffic controllers (ATCOs) can control several airfields from a distant virtual control centre. The control of multiple airfields can be centralized to a virtual centre permitting the more efficient use of ATCO resources. The current research was sponsored by the Single European Sky ATM Research Program (SESAR) and the ATM Operations Division of the Irish Aviation Authority. A safety case was developed for migration of multiple remote tower services to live operations. This research conducted 50 large scale demonstration (LSD) trials of remote tower operations from single tower operations to multiple tower operations for safety assessment by air navigation safety regulators in 2016. The provision of air traffic services at two airports at the same time utilizing innovative technological solutions from a virtual location by a single air traffic controller was the first of its kind in the world. The implementation of this innovative technology requires a careful balance between cost-efficiency and the safety of the air traffic control in terms of capacity and human performance. No safety occurrence was reported nor did any operational safety issue arise during the conduct of the fifty live trial exercises. Multiple remote tower operations show potential in air traffic services as an alternative to traditional Local Towers. The novelty and flexibility of the advanced technology allow regulators to be creative in adapting to fit safety regulations, also has the potential to fundamentally change the way operators provide ATS. The evolution of implementation of the innovative technology requires a careful balance between cost-efficiency and its potential impact on safety, capacity, and human performance.
Wen-Chin Li, Peter Kearney, Graham Braithwaite
Designing a Low-Cost Remote Tower Solution
Abstract
In recent years, Remote Tower Optical Systems became a well-established means of providing cost-effective remote surveillance capabilities to aerodromes operated by air traffic control (ATC) officers. However, smaller, non-ATC operated (uncontrolled) aerodromes, often affected by very low revenues, may also benefit from a Remote Tower solution, but still cannot afford the implementation and maintenance costs just like that. The aim of the work presented herein is to design a low-cost Remote Tower solution specifically tailored towards the requirements and budget constraints of uncontrolled aerodromes. The approach taken consists of a site survey at an uncontrolled aerodrome identifying two constraints faced and three potential operational use-cases, followed by the definition of a suitable camera set-up analogous to standard Remote Tower systems consisting of two panoramic cameras each capturing a 180-degree panorama and a pan-tilt-zoom-camera. Two novel visualization concepts based on a head-mounted device (HMD) are developed. The results of a validation study are presented indicating the camera set-up to be sufficient for remote control of uncontrolled aerodromes and pointing towards the potential of an HMD-based visualization. Finally, the proposed low-cost solution is compared to standard Remote Tower Optical Systems regarding the costs and design of the controller working position.
Fabian Reuschling, Jörn Jakobi
Backmatter
Metadata
Title
Virtual and Remote Control Tower
Editor
Dr. Norbert Fürstenau
Copyright Year
2022
Electronic ISBN
978-3-030-93650-1
Print ISBN
978-3-030-93649-5
DOI
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-93650-1

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