Work and Legal Guidelines in the Age of Digitalisation and Green Transition

Table of Contents

1. Frontmatter

   Download PDF-version

2. Chapter 1. Introduction

   • Open Access

   Rita Remeikienė, Ligita Gasparėnienė

   Abstract

   In the twenty-first century, structural transformations in the economy and labour markets have been primarily driven by two converging forces: digitalisation and the green transition. These megatrends—fostered by technological innovation, environmental imperatives, and new forms of economic organisation—are reshaping how work is structured, how employment relations are formed, and how labour is regulated. Across the European Union (EU) and its Eastern and Southeastern neighbours, these developments challenge existing legal frameworks and compel new approaches to social protection, employment governance, and sustainable development.

   Download PDF-version

3. Chapter 2. Digitalisation, Greening and the Labour Market

   • Open Access

   Rita Remeikienė, Ligita Gasparėnienė

   Abstract

   This chapter explores the dual impact of digitalisation and the green transition on the labour market, highlighting how these transformations reshape work structures, employment relations, and skill demands. It first examines digitalisation through the lenses of automation, robotisation, and digital labour platforms. While these developments boost productivity, they also pose risks such as job displacement and labour market polarisation, especially for low- and medium-skilled workers. Additionally, new forms of platform-based, non-standard work challenge traditional legal definitions and weaken social protections. The green transition is discussed as a major industrial shift influenced by EU policies, particularly the European Green Deal. The chapter outlines how innovation, energy efficiency, and sustainable production alter employment patterns. It identifies key mechanisms of change—such as resource efficiency and process innovation—and evaluates their implications for job creation and transformation. By integrating technological and environmental perspectives, the chapter proposes a framework to assess how these twin transitions interact and shape labour dynamics. It also points to policy measures that can mitigate associated risks and support inclusive, sustainable employment growth.

   Download PDF-version

4. Chapter 3. The Specifics and Types of Platform Work

   • Open Access

   Rita Remeikienė, Ligita Gasparėnienė

   Abstract

   This chapter explores the nature and diversity of digital platform work, examining its conceptual foundations, emergence, and evolution across global and post-Soviet contexts. It identifies the main drivers of platform work, including technological advancement, labour market flexibility, and economic insecurity, highlighting both the appeal and the risks associated with this employment model. The chapter presents five distinct categories of platform work, ranging from highly skilled developers to gig workers and micro-taskers, and analyses their working conditions, income levels, and challenges. A central focus is placed on the employment status of platform workers, particularly the widespread classification as self-employed contractors, which limits access to social protections and legal entitlements. The chapter analyses typical contractual provisions used by major platforms and examines the evolving role of trade unions in defending platform workers’ rights. It further reviews new forms of collective organisation such as cooperatives, guilds, and quasi-unions. Finally, the chapter offers a comparative insight into the specific conditions of platform work in post-Soviet economies, where informal labour markets, weak legal enforcement, and socio-economic instability create both opportunities and vulnerabilities. It concludes that the fragmented legal and social landscape calls for adaptive and inclusive regulatory strategies.

   Download PDF-version

5. Chapter 4. European Union Initiatives for Sustainable Growth, Digital Transformation, and the Regulation of Platform Work

   • Open Access

   Deimilė Prapiestytė

   Abstract

   This chapter provides a structured overview of the European Union’s institutional efforts to implement the European Green Deal, with particular emphasis on strategies that foster a clean and circular economy. It is important to note that this document underscores the policy priorities delineated by the European Council and the concomitant European Commission initiatives, encompassing the European Green Deal Communication, the Circular Economy Action Plan, and the Industrial Strategy. Legislative instruments such as the Net-Zero Industry Act, the Critical Raw Materials Act, and directives supporting sustainable products and the “Right to Repair” are examined. The European Union’s commitment to climate neutrality, industrial resilience, and sustainable consumption patterns is further underscored by advancements in specific sectors, including packaging, electronics, and ICT.

   In parallel, the chapter addresses the EU’s pursuit of a dual digital and green transition. It is widely acknowledged that a range of computing technologies have a pivotal role to play in facilitating sustainability objectives and serving as instruments for reducing the ecological impact of digital infrastructure. However, the 2024 assessments indicate that progress remains inadequate to achieve the 2030 targets, necessitating augmented investment and policy recalibration.

   The chapter concludes with the presentation of the Platform Work Directive, a legislative response to the expansion of digital labour platforms across the EU. This directive has been developed with the intention of enhancing the social protection available to platform workers. It addresses critical challenges, including worker misclassification, the opacity of algorithmic management, and cross-border enforcement. The Platform Work Directive establishes also a presumption of employment status, mandates algorithmic transparency, safeguards personal data, and enhances enforcement capacities. This directive is indicative of the EU’s broader commitment to ensuring fair, transparent, and accountable platform work.

   Download PDF-version

6. Chapter 5. Problems of Labour Regulation on Digital Platforms in Eastern and Southeastern European Countries

   • Open Access

   Arnas Paliukėnas, Haroldas Šinkūnas

   Abstract

   This chapter examines the legal and socio-economic challenges of regulating digital platform work in Eastern and Southeastern European countries. It focuses on Moldova, Ukraine, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Serbia, Montenegro, and Albania, offering comparative insights into national regulatory approaches, informal labour dynamics, and employment status misclassification. While digital platforms provide flexibility and new income opportunities, they also perpetuate undeclared work, legal ambiguity, and gaps in social protection. The analysis reveals that most countries in the region lack specific legal frameworks for platform workers, resulting in their widespread classification as self-employed and exclusion from labour rights and benefits. The chapter evaluates attempts at national and international reform, including the European Commission’s directive negotiations and Ukraine’s Diia City regime, highlighting divergent strategies and implementation barriers. Case studies reveal the prevalence of intermediary employment models, inconsistent contract types, and algorithmic control over work processes. The chapter emphasises the growing need for national legislative solutions that balance labour flexibility with adequate protection and legal clarity. It concludes that addressing informal work and legal misclassification is key to ensuring fair conditions in the platform economy, requiring political will, institutional capacity, and stronger worker representation.

   Download PDF-version

7. Chapter 6. Empirical Results from a Survay of Digital Platform Workers in Moldova

   • Open Access

   Liliana Staver, Grigore Belostecinic, Larisa Dodu-Gugea, Larisa Mistrean

   Abstract

   This chapter provides an in-depth analysis of digital platform work in the Republic of Moldova, based on a comprehensive national survey conducted between June and August 2024. The study examines the demographic composition, educational attainment, occupational diversity, and geographic distribution of platform workers, while also assessing their motivations, working conditions, and perceived vulnerabilities in the emerging platform economy. Using a mixed-methods approach with CATI and CAWI instruments, the survey collected responses from 846 individuals in urban and rural regions. The findings reveal a complex interplay between flexibility, autonomy, and income supplementation, juxtaposed with widespread informality, lack of legal protection, and precarious working conditions. Particular attention is paid to gender and age disparities, the role of platform work as a primary and supplementary source of income, and the implications for social justice and labor market inclusion. Comparative references to global literature contextualize Moldova’s position within broader platform work dynamics, highlighting both convergences and local specificities. The chapter concludes with policy-oriented reflections on the regulation of platform-mediated work, highlighting the urgent need to reconcile digital innovation with fair labor standards and comprehensive social protection frameworks.

   Download PDF-version

8. Chapter 7. Conclusions

   • Open Access

   Ligita Gasparėnienė, Rita Remeikienė

   Abstract

   Moldova’s experience with platform work aligns closely with international patterns. Across the world, platform workers face similar challenges—precarious working conditions, income insecurity, and a lack of social protections. These vulnerabilities highlight the need for legislative reforms that extend labor protections to non-standard forms of employment, a conversation that is gaining traction both in Moldova and globally.

   Download PDF-version

9. Backmatter

   Download PDF-version