European Political Leaders and the Social Representation of the Covid-19 Crisis

Inhaltsverzeichnis

1. Frontmatter

2. Chapter 1. Introduction

   Flaminia Saccà, Donatella Selva

   Abstract

   The introduction presents the objectives and structure of the volume, referring to the scientific literature of recent years concerning the transformations of representative democracy. In particular, the relationship between politics and science is discussed in the light of the rise of phenomena such as populism and techno-populism, and research hypotheses on the impact of the pandemic on these processes are defined. Furthermore, the chapter defines the concepts of leadership style and political culture by drawing on an interdisciplinary knowledge rooted in political sociology and the sociology of communication. In this way, the evolution of the concepts and their applicability to the contemporary political universe is brought to light.

3. Women Leaders Between Competence and Empathy: Angela Merkel and Erna Solberg

   1. Frontmatter

   2. Chapter 2. Introducing Women Leaders: Merkel and Solberg

      Flaminia Saccà, Donatella Selva

      Abstract

      The chapter presents the main theoretical lines on which the study of women’s leadership in politics has developed, paying particular attention to the concept of gender stereotypes and arriving at a declination of the characteristics of empathic leadership. In particular, in previous generations of women leaders, the traditional spectrum of “feminine competence” has been limited to a concept of care, albeit broadened to include the policy areas of the welfare State such as health, family, and education. The authors argue that women leaders have proven to be more effective as compared to men in the management of pandemic crises by adopting a communication style that successfully combines scientific competence, rigour, and empathy. In the light of this, the political biographies of the two leaders analysed, Angela Merkel and Erna Solberg, are introduced and their ways of attaining power are illustrated. Subsequently, the chapter offers a synthetic overview of the pandemic’s progress in the two countries by comparing data on the contagion and the containment policies adopted.

   3. Chapter 3. Angela Merkel’s Approach to the Pandemic

      Flaminia Saccà, Donatella Selva

      Abstract

      The chapter analyses the leadership style adopted by Angela Merkel by focusing on four main aspects: the way she manages to build a sense of collective responsibility, strengthening democratic institutions and rewarding the welfare system, adopting an empathy-oriented communication mode, and legitimising political decisions based on scientific wisdom. Through the analysis of speeches given during the two waves of 2020, the chapter shows how Merkel led Germany through the pandemic. It highlights the leader’s ability to effectively combine the use of detailed explanations of the seriousness of the situation without, however, lapsing into the paternalism of treating citizens as children. On the contrary, the leader offers understanding and willingness to dialogue with all social and political parties, while at the same time highlighting the need to adopt a rigorous adherence to science.

   4. Chapter 4. Erna Solberg’s Approach to the Pandemic

      Flaminia Saccà, Donatella Selva

      Abstract

      The chapter discusses the case of Erna Solberg in search of the characteristics of contemporary female leadership. Four aspects in particular are highlighted: the way in which Solberg refers to the concept of dugnad (translatable as “collective commitment”) in order to ask citizens to show solidarity and a sense of community through compliance with the rules of confinement; the desire to contribute to the strengthening of dialogue and collaboration between the different institutions that make up democracy, and the reference to a welfare of excellence as proof of democratic stability; the adoption of an empathetic communicative style, expressed above all in the ability to speak to different segments of the population, including children; finally, the ability to build a fruitful dialogue with scientific experts, in a continuous exchange of legitimacy.

4. Techno-populism, Expertise and the Welfare State: Giuseppe Conte, Emmanuel Macron and Pedro Sánchez

   1. Frontmatter

   2. Chapter 5. Introducing Techno-Populist Leaders and Their Alternative: Conte and Macron Faced to Sánchez

      Flaminia Saccà, Donatella Selva

      Abstract

      The chapter addresses the relations between populism, techno-populism, and expertise, focusing on the literature that has first described those phenomena before the pandemic. The authors highlight how notions of “technicity” and expertise have been increasingly used as a source of legitimacy for new political leaders, who paradoxically rely on a populist communication strategy. This trend calls into question one of the most widespread populist axioms: the people vs. the élites. At the same time, the pandemic has revealed the fallacies of a political scheme constructed on such a vertical conflict, reintegrating forms of scientific expertise. At the same time, we see post-ideological stances going hand-in-hand with a paternalist leadership style; on the other, a transformational leadership coming from those who interpret politics “as a vocation”. The chapter traces the main stages of the political biography of three leaders: Giuseppe Conte (Italy), Emmanuel Macron (France), and Pedro Sánchez (Spain). More specifically, the leaders of the Five Star Movement (Movimento Cinque Stelle) and The Republic on the Move (La République En Marche) have been indicated as examples of techno-populist actors. As the case of Sánchez shows, political expertise has also been invoked as a key element of leadership, substantiating the meaning of politics in contrast with the populist zeitgeist and the politics of hate. Moreover, the chapter also highlights the features of the pandemic in the three countries, focusing on contagion rates and public policies.

   3. Chapter 6. Giuseppe Conte’s Approach to the Pandemic

      Flaminia Saccà, Donatella Selva

      Abstract

      The case of Giuseppe Conte is illustrative of the more general phenomenon of techno-populism. Although he emerges as the leader of a populist party, Conte is in fact a technician, professor, and lawyer, so much so that he has asked to be considered ‘the people’s advocate’. At the outbreak of the pandemic, this ambivalent relationship between the need to maintain consensus through popular decisions, on the one hand, and the need to strictly follow the advice of scientific experts, on the other, will lead Conte to adopt a leadership style constantly in search of legitimacy, both from the citizens (with whom he will try to adopt a decidedly paternalistic style) and from politics and the private sector. The chapter dwells in particular on five points: the relationship with the people; the ideology and motivations for the public policies adopted; the relationship with politics; the relationship with the European Union; and finally, the relationship with science and experts.

   4. Chapter 7. Emmanuel Macron’s Approach to the Pandemic

      Flaminia Saccà, Donatella Selva

      Abstract

      The case of Emmanuel Macron challenges pre-existing categories of populism and non-populism in a way that makes it complicated to claim he completely fits with one rather than the other. In this context, Macron has been indicated as the perfect ideal-type of how a certain class of European financial technocrat can compete for (and win) a political position using a populist rhetoric, which in theory would be paradoxical. He won the 2017 elections by creating a personalised party ex novo, The Republic on the Move, and interpreted his role as a “Jupiterian President”, a man who was able to rise above the other men. In line with these premises, during the pandemic he adopted a leadership style that is based on a plebiscitarian, direct relationship with citizens, constantly appealing to them for respecting the rules. The chapter analyses his discourses during the first and the second waves by highlighting five dimensions: the relationship with the people; the ideology and motivations for the public policies adopted; the relationship with politics; the relationship with the European Union; and finally, the relationship with science and experts.

   5. Chapter 8. Pedro Sánchez’s Approach to the Pandemic

      Flaminia Saccà, Donatella Selva

      Abstract

      The case of Pedro Sánchez represents a radically different ideal-type from the two techno-populist leaders Giuseppe Conte and Emmanuel Macron and is therefore used as a term of comparison. He has had a political career in one of the most important traditional parties, one that has had to deal and compete with populist forces, and ultimately also to govern with them in a coalition government. Through the analysis of the speeches delivered by Sánchez during the two waves of 2020, the following are highlighted: the relationship of the leader with the people, which is based on a non-paternalistic approach and oriented towards the reconstruction of inter-generational solidarity; the ways in which he justifies the decisions taken, referring in a direct way to a clear political ideology; the relationship of the leader with politics, with the sense of institutions and with opponents in Parliament; the relationship with the European Union, which never lapses into Euroscepticism or sovereignism but which claims the possibility of a common position in the fight against the Covid-19; finally, the relationship with science and the rigour with which he chooses to follow the advice of experts, even if this implies the risk of appearing unpopular.

5. Populist Leaders Against the Virus: Boris Johnson’s and Victor Orban’s Pandemic Narratives

   1. Frontmatter

   2. Chapter 9. The Pandemic Turn: Populist Government Leaders Facing the Virus

      Luca Massidda, Flaminia Saccà

      Abstract

      The chapter introduces the reader to the evolution of the literature on populism in recent years. In particular, it proposes a model for analysing the relationship between populist leaders and the pandemic based on an assessment of strengths and weaknesses, risks and opportunities. Indeed, by means of a SWOT analysis, it is possible to understand how the pandemic crisis has been something more and very different from the other crises that have occurred in the past decades. In particular, populism seems to have benefited above all from the financial crisis and to have a mutually reinforcing relationship with the crisis of representative democracy, as well as with the democratic deficit that underlies the legitimacy crisis that has affected the European Union. However, the Covid-19 pandemic is a more complex and multifaceted situation that shows different sides of populism: while it highlights its limitations, it also reveals its intimate connection to an authoritarian political culture. To do this, the chapter presents the political biographies of two European leaders: Boris Johnson and Victor Orbán. The chapter concludes with an examination of secondary data on the course of the contagion and the adoption of pandemic mitigation policies in the respective countries.

   3. Chapter 10. Boris Johnson’s Approach to the Pandemic

      Luca Massidda, Flaminia Saccà

      Abstract

      Boris Johnson’s leadership has been described as populist in view of the fact that the British conservative came to Downing Street due to his positioning in relation to Brexit, as well as the obvious similarities with Donald Trump in his communication style. The analysis of the speeches made during the pandemic, however, portrays Johnson as a leader somewhere between the “easy-going” populism of the first weeks and a full integration within the institutions, typical of an old-style approach of conservatism. In fact, Johnson changes leadership style during the course of the pandemic, right after his hospitalisation for having contracted the virus: this event causes him to abandon positions more oriented towards safeguarding the economy, in favour of a greater balance in dealing with the recommendations of scientific experts and implementing strict policies to contain the contagion. It is in this sense that the authors describe the pandemic as a context for the normalisation of Boris Johnson’s populism. However, this retreat towards more moderate positions, together with a series of scandals that undermined the resilience of his leadership, led Johnson to a decline in support and eventually to his downfall.

   4. Chapter 11. Viktor Orbán’s Approach to the Pandemic

      Luca Massidda, Flaminia Saccà

      Abstract

      The Hungarian leader is the protagonist of this chapter, in which the populist leadership grapples with the pandemic crisis. Due to his decades-long rule, Hungary is described as an illiberal democracy: indeed, since coming to power, Orbán has done nothing but cry emergency in order to gain new prerogatives and limit the role of parliament. The “permanent state of emergency” has fostered a natural continuation of anti-liberal policies during the pandemic, which has indeed represented a context of real danger that reinforces the credibility of the narrative offered by the leader. The leader presents himself in hyper-masculine tones, like the commander-in-chief facing the virus on the battlefield. The analysis shows how the leader’s performative style is always brought to the foreground through the frequent use of war metaphors. The result was that, unlike Johnson, in this case the pandemic acted as an amplifier of populist leadership, accentuating the authoritarian drift.

   5. Chapter 12. Conclusions

      Flaminia Saccà, Donatella Selva

      Abstract

      The concluding chapter ties together all the findings from the case analysis, comparing the characteristics and trajectories of the different leaders examined. An extended look highlights the differences and similarities between leaders who were confronted with an epochal challenge. Given the same context, however, the importance of political culture in determining the leadership style adopted emerges. The heterogeneity of pandemic response modes and leadership styles portrayed in this volume demonstrates that this is both a great strength and a great weakness of democracy. On the one hand, it proves that democratic institutions, decision-making procedures, and consensus-building strategies are rooted, enhanced, threatened, or reproduced by the country’s political culture. The cultural specificities of the individual country and the historical-political moment it is experiencing are the first major factors of variation; another, as we have tried to emphasise, is that it derives from the different political cultures of which the different leaders are examples. In an era of depoliticisation and crisis in the legitimacy of representative institutions, Covid-19 has highlighted the possible consequences for the democratic fibre, general wellness and prosperity of the nations of a depoliticised and delegitimated political class. The pandemic has proved a challenge not only for the people and national and supranational health organisations but also exposed the democratic quality of the countries involved.

6. 13. Correction to: European Political Leaders and the Social Representation of the Covid-19 Crisis

   Flaminia Saccà, Donatella Selva

7. Backmatter