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2021 | OriginalPaper | Buchkapitel

1. Evolution of the International Humanitarian Law Provisions on Sieges

verfasst von : Agnieszka Szpak

Erschienen in: Yearbook of International Humanitarian Law, Volume 22 (2019)

Verlag: T.M.C. Asser Press

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Abstract

The international regulations on siege warfare have evolved from lenient to increasingly restrictive, both with regard to the conduct of hostilities and to humanitarian assistance to victims of war. Siege warfare is not forbidden but heavily restricted, in particular by the prohibition of starvation of the civilian population, the latter commonly considered as customary in character. Together with the evolution of international humanitarian law, the evolution of armed conflicts, once fought on battlefields and now increasingly in urban areas and among the civilians, results in sieges being a lawful method of warfare but only when directed against combatants. This chapter examines the legality of sieges in the light of international humanitarian law. Apart from the analysis of international humanitarian law, a possible impact of the United Nations Security Council Resolutions on the law and practice of siege warfare is signaled. The aim of this chapter is to show historical and current regulations of international humanitarian law on siege warfare and in this way identify the evolution of the law on sieges.

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Nächstes Kapitel Towards a Better Understanding of the Concept of ‘Indiscriminate Attack’—How International Criminal Law Can Be of Assistance
Fußnoten
1
Campbell 2005; Gravett 1990.
 
2
Campbell 2005, p 4.
 
3
Forczyk 2009; Glantz 2001.
 
4
The siege of Sarajevo was adjudicated in the Galić case by the International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia (ICTY). Stanislav Galić was the commander of the Sarajevo Romanija Corps in the Bosnian Serb Army, from September 1992 in the rank of Major General. Galić carried out a campaign of shelling and sniper attacks on Sarajevo with the intention of spreading terror among the civilian population. These attacks, which occurred every day for many months (1992–1994), led to the deaths of hundreds of women and men of all ages, including children, and injuries to thousands of people. Galić was found guilty of the crime of spreading terror among the civilian population in violation of the laws and customs of war and murder and other inhuman acts as part of crimes against humanity and sentenced to life imprisonment. For more details, see ICTY 2019.
 
5
Watts 2014, p 4; van den Boogaard and Vermeer 2019, p 166.
 
6
Power 2016, pp 1–4.
 
7
Watts 2014, pp 3–4; van den Boogaard and Vermeer 2019, p 168.
 
8
Hills 2004, Preface; Watts 2014, pp 3–4.
 
9
Ibid., p 2.
 
10
Ibid., p 3.
 
11
Ibid.
 
12
Blank 2019.
 
13
Watts 2014, pp 3, 4.
 
14
Ibid., p 3.
 
15
Van Schaack 2016.
 
16
Kraska 2009.
 
17
Van den Boogaard and Vermeer 2019, p 165.
 
18
Dinstein 2004, p 133.
 
19
Ibid.
 
20
Ibid., p 136.
 
21
Rottensteiner 1999.
 
22
Protocol Additional to the Geneva Conventions of 12 August 1949, and relating to the Protection of Victims of International Armed Conflicts (Protocol I), opened for signature 8 June 1977, 1125 UNTS 3 (entered into force 7 December 1978) (AP I).
 
23
Watts 2014, p 5.
 
24
Convention (II) with Respect to the Laws and Customs of War on Land and its annex: Regulations concerning the Laws and Customs of War on Land, opened for signature 29 July 1899, 87 CTS 227 (entered into force 4 September 1900) (Hague Convention II); Convention (IV) respecting the Laws and Customs of War on Land and its annex: Regulations concerning the Laws and Customs of War on Land, opened for signature 18 October 1907, International Peace Conference, The Hague, Official Record 631 (entered into force 26 January 1910), Article 22 (Hague Convention IV).
 
25
AP I, above n 22; Protocol Additional to the Geneva Conventions of 12 August 1949, and relating to the Protection of Victims of Non-international Armed Conflicts (Protocol II), opened for signature 8 June 1977, 1125 UNTS 609 (entered into force 7 December 1978).
 
26
Van den Boogaard and Vermeer 2019, p 169.
 
27
Lieber 1863.
 
28
Watts 2014, p 5.
 
29
Hague Convention II, above n 24.
 
30
Hague Convention IV, above n 24.
 
31
Project of an International Declaration concerning the Laws and Customs of War, opened for signature 27 August 1874, https://​ihl-databases.​icrc.​org/​ihl/​INTRO/​135. Accessed 16 April 2019 (not yet entered into force), Article 17.
 
32
The Institute of International Law 1880, Article 34.
 
33
Watts 2014, p 6.
 
34
Gaggioli 2019.
 
35
Henckaerts and Doswald-Beck 2005.
 
36
AP I, above n 22, Article 54.
 
37
A. P. V. Rogers, quoted in Watts 2014, p 11.
 
38
AP I, above n 22.
 
39
See comment on Rule 53 (Henckaerts and Doswald-Beck 2005, p 188):
The prohibition of starvation as a method of warfare does not prohibit siege warfare as long as the purpose is to achieve a military objective and not to starve a civilian population. This is stated in the military manuals of France and New Zealand. Israel’s Manual on the Laws of War explains that the prohibition of starvation ‘clearly implies that the city’s inhabitants must be allowed to leave the city during a siege’. Alternatively, the besieging party must allow the free passage of foodstuffs and other essential supplies, in accordance with Rule 55.
 
40
International Institute of Humanitarian Law 1994, Article 102(a); Program on Humanitarian Policy and Conflict Research 2009, Article 157(a).
 
41
Gaggioli 2019.
 
42
Geneva Convention (I) for the Amelioration of the Condition of the Wounded and Sick in Armed Forces in the Field, opened for signature 12 August 1949, 75 UNTS 31 (entered into force 21 October 1950), Article 15.
 
43
Geneva Convention (II) for the Amelioration of the Condition of Wounded, Sick and Shipwrecked Members of Armed Forces at Sea, opened for signature 12 August 1949, 75 UNTS 85 (entered into force 21 October 1950), Article 18.
 
44
Geneva Convention (IV) relative to the Protection of Civilian Persons in Time of War, opened for signature 8 August 1949, 75 UNTS 287 (entered into force 21 October 1950), Article 17.
 
45
Mikos-Skuza 2018, p 326. By way of example, the American Law of War Manual (US Department of Defense 2015, Section 5.19) also states that
It is lawful to besiege enemy forces. Commanders must seek to make arrangements to permit the passage of certain consignments and should seek to make arrangements for the passage of certain categories of civilians, and of religious and medical personnel. […] Although the commander of the force laying siege has the right to forbid all communications and access between the besieged place and the outside, the parties to the conflict should attempt to conclude local agreements for the removal of wounded, sick, infirm and aged persons, children, and maternity cases, or for the passage of ministers of all religions, medical personnel, and medical equipment on their way to such areas. Concluding such agreements is not compulsory.
The Former US Field Manual on the Law of Land Warfare of 1956 (US Department of the Army 1956, Section 44(a), p 20) contained a contrary provision:
[I]f a commander of a besieged place expels the non-combatants in order to lessen the logistical burden he has to bear, it is lawful, though an extreme measure, to drive them back, so as to hasten the surrender. Persons who attempt to leave or enter a besieged place without obtaining the necessary permission are liable to be fired upon, sent back, or detained.
Fortunately, this provision has been changed.
 
46
Dinstein 2004, p 134; Van Schaack 2016.
 
47
Dinstein 2004, p 135.
 
48
For more details, see Akande and Gillard 2016, paras 22–26.
 
49
Henckaerts and Doswald-Beck 2005, Rule 55.
 
50
AP I, above n 22.
 
51
Schwendimann 2011, p 998.
 
52
Mikos-Skuza 2018, p 325.
 
53
Sandoz et al. 1987, pp 819–820.
 
54
Akande and Gillard 2016, para 22.
 
55
AP I, above n 22, Article 70; Kalshoven and Zegveld 2001, p 105.
 
56
Watts 2014, p 8.
 
57
John-Hopkins 2010, p 489.
 
58
Henckaerts and Doswald-Beck 2005, Rule 55.
 
59
In this way Dinstein 2004, p 136.
 
60
UK Joint Doctrine and Concepts Centre 2004, Section 5.34.9.
 
61
Watts 2014, p 9.
 
62
Ibid., p 18.
 
63
Ibid., p 18.
 
64
Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court, opened for signature 17 July 1998, 2187 UNTS 3 (entered into force 1 July 2002) (ICC Statute).
 
65
Dinstein 2004, p 136.
 
66
Ibid.
 
67
For more details, see Gaggioli 2019.
 
68
Gaggioli 2019.
 
69
AP I, above n 22, Article 58.
 
70
Dinstein 2004, p 136.
 
71
Mikos-Skuza 2018, p 326.
 
72
Gaggioli 2019.
 
73
Ibid.
 
74
International Institute of Humanitarian Law 1994.
 
75
ICC Statute, above n 64.
 
76
ICTY, Prosecutor v Zoran Kupreškić et al., Judgment, 14 January 2000, Case No. IT-95-16-T, paras 621, 627.
 
77
Watts 2014, pp 1, 5.
 
78
Common Article 3 of the Geneva Conventions.
 
79
Watts 2014, p 19.
 
80
Henckaerts and Doswald-Beck 2005, p 188.
 
81
Peijc 2001, p 1108.
 
82
Akande and Gillard 2016, para 24.
 
83
Ibid., paras 28–30.
 
84
Peijc 2001, p 1100. In the same way Rottensteiner 1999.
 
85
Henckaerts and Doswald-Beck 2005, Rule 53, p 187.
 
86
UN Security Council (2018) Implementation of Security Council resolutions 2139 (2014), 2165 (2014), 2191 (2014), 2258 (2015), 2332 (2016), 2393 (2017) and 2401 (2018). Report of the Secretary-General, UN Doc. S/2018/484, Box 2 Humanitarian Access, Key Points. According to this report: “[a]n area is considered by the United Nations to be besieged when it is surrounded by armed actors, with the sustained effect that civilians, including the sick and the wounded, cannot exit it on a regular basis and humanitarian assistance cannot regularly enter it” (p 9). The report does not define a hard-to-reach area but it is a broader category and includes areas with difficult access yet nor militarily surrounded. Beth Van Schaack adds that that the term hard-to-reach areas “is a euphemism that some argue is employed to avoid using the “S” word (“siege”), given its potential war crimes implications” (Van Schaack 2016).
 
87
UN Security Council (2014) Resolution 2139 (2014), UN DOC. S/RES/2139, Preamble, p 2 and Section 5.
 
88
UN Security Council (2014) Resolution 2165 (2014), UN DOC. S/RES/2165, Preamble, p 2.
 
89
UN Security Council (2015) Resolution 2258 (2015), UN DOC. S/RES/2258, Preamble, p 3.
 
90
UN Security Council (2012), Resolution 2042 (2012), UN Doc. S/RES/2042, Section 10; UN Security Council (2012), Resolution 2043 (2012), UN doc. S/RES/2043, Section 11.
 
91
Charter of the United Nations, opened for signature 26 June 1945, 1 UTS XVI (entered into force 24 October 1945).
 
92
Watts 2014, p 21.
 
93
Schwendimann 2011, p 1001.
 
94
Fox 2018.
 
95
Van Schaack 2016; Power 2016, p 15.
 
96
Watts 2014, p 1.
 
97
Watts 2014, pp 21–22.
 
98
Ibid., p 22.
 
99
Gaggioli 2019.
 
Literatur
Campbell DB (2005) Ancient Siege Warfare: Persians, Greeks, Carthaginians and Romans 546–146 BC. Osprey Publishing, Oxford
Dinstein Y (2004) The Conduct of Hostilities under the Law of International Armed Conflict. Cambridge University Press, CambridgeCrossRef
Forczyk R (2009) Leningrad 1941–44: The Epic Siege. Osprey Publishing, Oxford
Glantz DM (2001) The Siege of Leningrad 1941–1944: 900 Days of Terror. Spellmount, Staplehurst
Gravett C (1990) Medieval Siege Warfare. Osprey Publishing, Oxford
Henckaerts J-M, Doswald-Beck L (2005) Customary International Humanitarian Law, Volume I: Rules. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge
Hills A (2004) Future War in Cities: Rethinking a Liberal Dilemma. Frank Cass, London/PortlandCrossRef
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Peijc J (2001) The right to food in situations of armed conflict: The legal framework. International Review of the Red Cross 83(844):1097–1109
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Convention (II) with Respect to the Laws and Customs of War on Land and its annex: Regulations concerning the Laws and Customs of War on Land, opened for signature 29 July 1899, 87 CTS 227 (entered into force 4 September 1900)
Convention (IV) respecting the Laws and Customs of War on Land and its annex: Regulations concerning the Laws and Customs of War on Land, opened for signature 18 October 1907, International Peace Conference, The Hague, Official Record 631 (entered into force 26 January 1910)
Geneva Convention (I) for the Amelioration of the Condition of the Wounded and Sick in Armed Forces in the Field, opened for signature 12 August 1949, 75 UNTS 31 (entered into force 21 October 1950)
Geneva Convention (II) for the Amelioration of the Condition of Wounded, Sick and Shipwrecked Members of Armed Forces at Sea, opened for signature 12 August 1949, 75 UNTS 85 (entered into force 21 October 1950)
Geneva Convention (IV) relative to the Protection of Civilian Persons in Time of War, opened for signature 8 August 1949, 75 UNTS 287 (entered into force 21 October 1950)
Protocol Additional to the Geneva Conventions of 12 August 1949, and relating to the Protection of Victims of International Armed Conflicts (Protocol I), opened for signature 8 June 1977, 1125 UNTS 3 (entered into force 7 December 1978)
Protocol Additional to the Geneva Conventions of 12 August 1949, and relating to the Protection of Victims of Non-International Armed Conflicts (Protocol II), opened for signature 8 June 1977, 1125 UNTS 609 (entered into force 7 December 1978)
Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court, opened for signature 17 July 1998, 2187 UNTS 3 (entered into force 1 July 2002)
Metadaten
Titel
Evolution of the International Humanitarian Law Provisions on Sieges
verfasst von
Agnieszka Szpak
Copyright-Jahr
2021
Buch
Yearbook of International Humanitarian Law, Volume 22 (2019)

Print ISBN: 978-94-6265-398-6

Electronic ISBN: 978-94-6265-399-3

Copyright-Jahr: 2021

DOI
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-6265-399-3_1