Ferroalloys

Inhaltsverzeichnis

1. Frontmatter

2. Chapter 1. Physicochemical Fundamentals of Ferroalloy Processes

   Mikhail Gasik, Viktor Dashevskii, Aitber Bizhanov

   Abstract

   Ferroalloy processes are based on the laws of physical chemistry, and more specifically, on the laws of chemical thermodynamics (thermochemistry) and chemical kinetics (thermokinetics). The laws of chemical thermodynamics with the help of a mathematical apparatus allow us to solve problems and get answers to questions: can this or that reaction proceed at specific given process parameters (temperature T and pressure P) and, if so, in which direction it will go. Thus, the laws of chemical thermodynamics determine the possibility and direction of a chemical reaction at given process parameters. The laws of chemical kinetics make it possible to estimate, according to well-known analytical dependencies, the time during which a given reaction can change from a non-equilibrium to an equilibrium state when the process parameters (T, P) change.

3. Chapter 2. Phase Equilibria in Metal and Oxide Ferroalloy Systems

   Mikhail Gasik, Viktor Dashevskii, Aitber Bizhanov

   Abstract

   When developing new and improving existing technological processes for the production of ferroalloys, data on phase equilibria in binary, ternary and more complex systems of metals, oxides, nitrides and others are important.

4. Chapter 3. Classification of Ferroalloy Processes

   Mikhail Gasik, Viktor Dashevskii, Aitber Bizhanov

   Abstract

   According to the modern classification, metals are divided into two main groups: ferrous and non-ferrous.

5. Chapter 4. Metallurgy of Silicon and Silicon Carbide

   Mikhail Gasik, Viktor Dashevskii, Aitber Bizhanov

   Abstract

   Silicon belongs to VIa group of the Periodic Table of Elements, atomic number 14, atomic mass 28.08, electron shell configuration 3s²3p², exhibits oxidation state +4 (the most stable), +3, +2 and +1. The melting point of silicon is 1415 °C; the boiling point is 3250 °C. The silicon crystal lattice is cubic, face-centered diamond type. The affinity of the silicon atom to the electron is 1.22 eV, Pauling electronegativity is 1.8, the atomic radius is 0.133 nm, and the ionic radius is Si4⁺ 0.040 nm (coordination number 4), covalent radius 0.1175 nm.

6. Chapter 5. Metallurgy of Ferrosilicon

   Mikhail Gasik, Viktor Dashevskii, Aitber Bizhanov

   Abstract

   Ferrosilicon assortment. Ferrosilicon is a large group of alloys of the iron–silicon system and is intended for deoxidation and alloying of steel. It is widely used in the foundry industry in the production of castings from iron and steel.

7. Chapter 6. Metallurgy of Manganese Ferroalloys

   Mikhail Gasik, Viktor Dashevskii, Aitber Bizhanov

   Abstract

   Manganese-element of the VIIb group of the Periodic system of elements. Atomic number of manganese 25, atomic mass 54.93, configuration of the outer electron shell of the atom 3d⁵4s², oxidation state from 2 to 7, the most stable are Mn²⁺ and Mn⁴⁺. Four cubic crystalline modifications of manganese are known: α-Mn modification, density 7.44 g/cm³, is stable below 710 °C; at 727–1090 °C—β-Mn, density 7.29 g/cm³; at 1090–1138 °C–γ-Mn, density 6.37 g/cm³; above 1138 °C—δ-Mn, density 6.28 g/cm³.

8. Chapter 7. Metallurgy of Chromium Ferroalloys

   Mikhail Gasik, Viktor Dashevskii, Aitber Bizhanov

   Abstract

   Chromium—element of the VIb group of the Periodic system of elements. Atomic number 24; atomic mass 51.996; electronic configuration 3d⁵4s¹; melting point 1907 °C and boiling point 2671 °C; density 7.19 g/cm³; oxidation state 2, 3 and 6. Chromium has a body-centered cubic lattice and does not have allotropy. Liquid and solid chromium has a relatively high vapor pressure.

9. Chapter 8. Metallurgy of Ferrotungsten

   Mikhail Gasik, Viktor Dashevskii, Aitber Bizhanov

   Abstract

   Tungsten was discovered and isolated in the form of tungsten anhydride WO₃ in 1781 by the Swedish chemist C. Scheele from the tungsten mineral, later called scheelite. The tungsten content in the earth’s crust is 10⁻⁴%. Ferrotungsten was first obtained in 1893 by the aluminothermic method.

10. Chapter 9. Metallurgy of Ferromolybdenum

    Mikhail Gasik, Viktor Dashevskii, Aitber Bizhanov

    Abstract

    Molybdenum belongs to the group of rare metals. It was discovered in 1782 by the Swedish chemist P. Gjelm, who isolated molybdenum acid. Its content in the earth’s crust is 1.1 × 10⁻⁴%.

11. Chapter 10. Metallurgy of Ferrovanadium

    Mikhail Gasik, Viktor Dashevskii, Aitber Bizhanov

    Abstract

    Vanadium was discovered in 1801 by the Mexican mineralogist A. M. del Rio. The content of vanadium in the earth’s crust is 0.015%; it is a fairly common, but dispersed element in rocks and minerals.

12. Chapter 11. Metallurgy of Ferrotitanium

    Mikhail Gasik, Viktor Dashevskii, Aitber Bizhanov

    Abstract

    Metallic titanium was obtained only in 1910 by the American scientist M.A. Hunter. According to the content in the earth’s crust, titanium takes the tenth place (0.57%); it is more than manganese, chromium, vanadium copper and some other metals.

13. Chapter 12. Alkaline Earth Metal Ferroalloys

    Mikhail Gasik, Viktor Dashevskii, Aitber Bizhanov

    Abstract

    Alkaline earth metals (AEM): beryllium, magnesium, calcium, strontium and barium belong to the IIA group of the Periodic system of elements.

14. Chapter 13. Metallurgy of Ferroniobium

    Mikhail Gasik, Viktor Dashevskii, Aitber Bizhanov

    Abstract

    Niobium was discovered in 1801 by the English scientist C. Hatchet in a mineral found in Colombia and named by him Columbia.

15. Chapter 14. Ferrosilicozirconium and Ferro-Alumino-Zirconium

    Mikhail Gasik, Viktor Dashevskii, Aitber Bizhanov

    Abstract

    Powdered zirconium was obtained in 1824 by J. Berzelius and plastic zirconium in 1925 by A. van Arkel and I. de Boer.

16. Chapter 15. Ferroaluminum and Silicoaluminum

    Mikhail Gasik, Viktor Dashevskii, Aitber Bizhanov

    Abstract

    Aluminum was first obtained in 1854 by the French chemist A. E. Saint-Clair DeWillem reduction of Na₃AlCl₆ double chloride with sodium metal. In terms of prevalence in nature, aluminum occupies the third place after oxygen and silicon and the first among metals. Its content in the earth’s crust is 8.8%.

17. Chapter 16. Ferroboron and Boron Carbide

    Mikhail Gasik, Viktor Dashevskii, Aitber Bizhanov

    Abstract

    For the first time, free boron was obtained in 1808 by Louis Joseph Gay-Lussac and Louis Jacques Tenard by heating B₂O₃ boron oxide with metallic potassium.

18. Chapter 17. Ferroalloys with Rare-Earth Metals

    Mikhail Gasik, Viktor Dashevskii, Aitber Bizhanov

    Abstract

    According to the classification, rare-earth metals (REM) include lanthanum (z = 57), lanthanides (elements from cerium to lutetium, z = 58/71), as well as scandium (z = 21) and yttrium (z = 39). REM—elements of the third group of the Periodic system of elements.

19. Chapter 18. Iron–Carbon Alloys

    Mikhail Gasik, Viktor Dashevskii, Aitber Bizhanov

    Abstract

    Iron was known in prehistoric times. A method for producing iron from ores was invented in the western part of Asia in the second millennium BC; after that, the use of iron spread to Babylon, Egypt, Greece—the Iron Age replaced the Bronze Age.

20. Chapter 19. Metallurgy of Ferronickel

    Mikhail Gasik, Viktor Dashevskii, Aitber Bizhanov

    Abstract

    Nickel metal was first obtained in 1751 by the Swedish chemist A. Kronstedt, who proposed the name of the element. A much cleaner metal was obtained in 1804 by the German chemist I. Richter. The nickel content in the earth’s crust is 5.8 × 0⁻³%. The overwhelming majority of nickel is used to produce alloys with other metals (Fe, Cr, Cu, etc.) that are distinguished by high mechanical, heat-resistant, anti-corrosion, electrical and thermoelectric properties. A significant amount of nickel is consumed for the production of alkaline batteries and anti-corrosion coatings. Malleable nickel in its pure form is used for the manufacture of sheets, tubes, etc. Nickel is also used in the chemical industry for the production of special chemical equipment and as a catalyst for many chemical processes.

21. Chapter 20. Metallurgy of Cobalt

    Mikhail Gasik, Viktor Dashevskii, Aitber Bizhanov

    Abstract

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22. Chapter 21. Metallurgy of Ferrophosphorus

    Mikhail Gasik, Viktor Dashevskii, Aitber Bizhanov

    Abstract

    XXX

23. Chapter 22. Ferroselenium and Ferrotellurium

    Mikhail Gasik, Viktor Dashevskii, Aitber Bizhanov

    Abstract

    Selenium was discovered by the Swedish chemist J. Berzelius in 1817. Selenium is a rare dispersed element, and its content in the earth’s crust is 6 × 10⁻⁵ %. Selenium and selenides are typical semiconductors. Selenium is used in electronics and electrical engineering in semiconductor devices, photocells, thermoalloys, and it is used for whitening and dyeing glass, to obtain wear-resistant rubber, to improve the workability of high alloy steels and alloys, as a catalyst and oxidizing agent in organic synthesis, as well as for the production of pigments and drugs. Selenium is obtained from sludges from electrolytic refining of copper, sulfuric acid and pulp and paper production.

24. Chapter 23. Metallurgy of Electrocorundum

    Mikhail Gasik, Viktor Dashevskii, Aitber Bizhanov

    Abstract

    Corundum (α-Al₂O₃) is found in nature as a rock-forming material. Its deposits are known in the Urals, in Yakutia and other regions of Russia. Pure varieties of natural corundum contain 95–98% Al₂O₃, but they are rare. As a rule, natural corundum contains impurities that reduce its quality. Therefore, the need for mechanical engineering, metallurgy and other industries in corundum as an abrasive and alumina-containing material is met by an artificial corundum called electrocorundum.

25. Chapter 24. Electrofused Fluxes

    Mikhail Gasik, Viktor Dashevskii, Aitber Bizhanov

    Abstract

    Electrofused fluxes obtained in specialized workshops of ferroalloy and metallurgical plants are widely used for electroslag remelting of steel and alloys, as well as in welding production. The method of electroslag remelting (ESR), the compositions of the fluxes and the technology for their preparation were developed by the Institute of Electric Welding named after E.O. Paton (National Academy of Sciences of Ukraine).

26. Chapter 25. Preparation of Charge Materials for Ferroalloys Smelting

    Mikhail Gasik, Viktor Dashevskii, Aitber Bizhanov

    Abstract

    The use of fine and wet concentrates reduces the productivity of electric furnaces, worsens their technical and economic parameters and is unsafe for maintenance personnel.

27. Chapter 26. Ferroalloys Furnaces

    Mikhail Gasik, Viktor Dashevskii, Aitber Bizhanov

    Abstract

    Ferroalloy production processes require high temperatures for their implementation and, in most cases, a concentration of heat in a limited furnace space. To the greatest extent, these conditions are met by heating devices using electric energy, called electric furnaces.

28. Chapter 27. Self-baking Electrodes

    Mikhail Gasik, Viktor Dashevskii, Aitber Bizhanov

    Abstract

    At the end of the nineteenth century, the production of coal and graphite electrodes was started according to the Acheson method. A method of manufacturing continuous self-baking electrodes, the most widely used in ferroalloy and other ore-smelting furnaces, was developed in 1918 by the Norwegian engineer Søderberg.

29. Chapter 28. Ferroalloys Dispersion (Atomizing)

    Mikhail Gasik, Viktor Dashevskii, Aitber Bizhanov

    Abstract

    Granular ferroalloys obtained by dispersing melts with air and water are widely used in various industries.

30. Chapter 29. Environmental Protection in Ferroalloys Industry

    Mikhail Gasik, Viktor Dashevskii, Aitber Bizhanov

    Abstract

    The main tasks of environmental protection in the process of metallurgical production are.

31. Backmatter