Skip to main content
Fachgebiete
Automobil + Motoren Bauwesen + Immobilien Business IT + Informatik Elektrotechnik + Elektronik Energie + Nachhaltigkeit Finance + Banking Management + Führung Marketing + Vertrieb Maschinenbau + Werkstoffe Versicherung + Risiko
DE
EN
Bücher
Zeitschriften
Themenseiten
Organisationspsychologie Projektmanagement Marketing Smart Manufacturing
Weitere Formate
Podcasts Webinare Technik Webinare Wirtschaft Kongresse Veranstaltungskalender Awards
Jetzt Einzelzugang starten
Zugang für Unternehmen
Referenzkunden
SLX-Digitalkonferenz: Zukunftswerkstatt 2024

Mehr Umsatz mit Top-Kontakten

Am 7. Mai erfahren Sie, wie Vertriebsteams Leadgenerierung, Leadnurturing und Leadstrategien effizient steuern können.
Erweiterte Suche
Anmelden
nach oben
Erschienen in:
The Role of Sustainable Development in Natural Resources Law Kapitel lesen Erstes Kapitel lesen

2019 | OriginalPaper | Buchkapitel

Fracking, Sovereignty over Natural Resources and International Investment Law

verfasst von : Leonie Reins, Dylan Geraets, Thomas Schomerus

Erschienen in: European Yearbook of International Economic Law 2018

Verlag: Springer International Publishing

Einloggen

Aktivieren Sie unsere intelligente Suche, um passende Fachinhalte oder Patente zu finden.

search-config
loading …

Abstract

The exploitation of natural resources such as oil, coal, and gas that are contained in the soil of the territory of States is generally considered to be subject only to the domestic regulation of the State in question. Due to the permanent sovereignty over natural resources, states are free to determine whether and how they wish to exploit these resources. The role of international law is limited, but only to the extent that concerns of foreign investors are not negatively affected. This contribution assesses the relationship between certain sub-sections of international economic law, investment law and trade law, and answers the question whether the case of shale gas extraction by means of fracking is merely another example of the tension between the rules that govern international economic relations and domestic policy considerations, or whether it represents a potential turning point in the way the international community perceives these constraints on domestic policy making. This is done by considering the Lone Pine Inc. investment arbitration against Canada. This arbitration takes place against a background of increasing public discontent with investor-state dispute settlement and a reconsideration of this concept by several states.

Sie haben noch keine Lizenz? Dann Informieren Sie sich jetzt über unsere Produkte:

Springer Professional "Wirtschaft+Technik"

Online-Abonnement

Mit Springer Professional "Wirtschaft+Technik" erhalten Sie Zugriff auf:

  • über 102.000 Bücher
  • über 537 Zeitschriften

aus folgenden Fachgebieten:

  • Automobil + Motoren
  • Bauwesen + Immobilien
  • Business IT + Informatik
  • Elektrotechnik + Elektronik
  • Energie + Nachhaltigkeit
  • Finance + Banking
  • Management + Führung
  • Marketing + Vertrieb
  • Maschinenbau + Werkstoffe
  • Versicherung + Risiko

Jetzt Wissensvorsprung sichern!

Jetzt informieren

Springer Professional "Technik"

Online-Abonnement

Mit Springer Professional "Technik" erhalten Sie Zugriff auf:

  • über 67.000 Bücher
  • über 390 Zeitschriften

aus folgenden Fachgebieten:

  • Automobil + Motoren
  • Bauwesen + Immobilien
  • Business IT + Informatik
  • Elektrotechnik + Elektronik
  • Energie + Nachhaltigkeit
  • Maschinenbau + Werkstoffe




 

Jetzt Wissensvorsprung sichern!

Jetzt informieren

Springer Professional "Wirtschaft"

Online-Abonnement

Mit Springer Professional "Wirtschaft" erhalten Sie Zugriff auf:

  • über 67.000 Bücher
  • über 340 Zeitschriften

aus folgenden Fachgebieten:

  • Bauwesen + Immobilien
  • Business IT + Informatik
  • Finance + Banking
  • Management + Führung
  • Marketing + Vertrieb
  • Versicherung + Risiko




Jetzt Wissensvorsprung sichern!

Jetzt informieren
Vorheriges Kapitel Reconsidering Sovereignty, Ownership and Consent in Natural Resource Contracts: From Concepts to Practice
Nächstes Kapitel Towards a European Natural Resources Law?
Fußnoten
1
For further information on gas production, imports, exports, demands and prices see International Energy Agency (2017).
 
2
See Lone Pine Resources Inc. v. The Government of Canada, ICSID Case No. UNCT/15/2 (further discussed in Sect. 4).
 
3
This section of the paper is to a large extent based upon Geraets and Reins (2016); refer to this article also for a detailed description of the technique, as well as the Production of shale gas and associated environmental concerns.
 
4
For an overview of the different hydraulic fracturing stages see for example FracFocus.
 
5
For a more detailed description of the technology and its environmental considerations refer to Middleton et al. (2017).
 
6
For an overview and discussion refer to Fleming (2013).
 
7
For a comparative analysis of amongst others the ownership system of mineral rights and its impacts on public perception and participation in the United States and the United Kingdom please refer to Whitton et al. (2017).
 
8
See also Goldthau and Sovacool (2016).
 
9
Act 2011-835 of 13 July 2011 (Loi n° 2011-835 du 13 juillet 2011 visant à interdire l’exploration et l’exploitation des mines d’hydrocarbures liquides ou gazeux par fracturation hydraulique et à abroger les permis exclusifs de recherches comportant des projets ayant recours à cette technique).
 
10
U.S. Energy Information Administration (2016a), p. 21.
 
11
U.S. Energy Information Administration (2013).
 
12
U.S. Energy Information Administration (2016a), p. 21.
 
13
Ibid.
 
14
US Energy Information Administration (2013).
 
15
For more information on the beginning of shale gas production and the environmental concerns in Canada, refer to Rivard et al. (2014).
 
16
U.S. Energy Information Administration (2016b).
 
17
Government of Canada (2018b).
 
19
Polish Geological Institute (2012).
 
20
For more information see Orlen (2010), pp. 44–55.
 
21
Meißner and Naumenko (2011), p. 9.
 
22
See also Goldthau and Sovacool (2016).
 
23
Financial Times (2018).
 
24
Sinding (2013).
 
25
NY ECL § 23-0303(2).
 
26
DRBC (2018).
 
27
See for further information on the involvement of water and river basin commissions in the shale gas regulation process: ibid.
 
28
DRBC (2009).
 
29
See for a comparative analysis for the legal regimes in the United States and Canada: Carter and Eaton (2016).
 
30
Government of Canada (2018b).
 
31
For an overview refer to Government of Canada (2018a).
 
32
Canadian Association of Petroleum Producers, as well as Beaudoin and Serry (2010).
 
33
Canadian Association of Petroleum Producers (2012).
 
34
This is because “energy” and “environment” are included as a shared competence under Articles 4 (2)(e) and (i) TFEU Accordingly “the Union and the Member States may legislate and adopt legally binding acts in that area. The Member States shall exercise their competence to the extent that the Union has not exercised its competence. The Member States shall again exercise their competence to the extent that the Union has decided to cease exercising its competence” (Article 2(2) TFEU).
 
35
Commission Recommendation from 22 January 2014 on minimum principles for the exploration and production of hydrocarbons (such as shale gas) using high-volume hydraulic fracturing, OJ [2014] L39/72 (“Recommendation”).
 
36
Generally speaking, the entire European Union environmental acquis is applicable to shale gas activities, see also: Tomescu.
 
37
DG for Internal Policies European Parliament (2011), pp. 53–60.
 
38
Directive 2006/21/EC on the management of waste from extractive industries and amending Directive 2004/35/EC, [2006] OJ L 102/15.
 
39
Directive 2008/50/EC of 21 May 2008 on ambient air quality and cleaner air for Europe, [2008] OJ L 152/1.
 
40
Directive 96/82/EC of 9 December 1996 on the control of major-accident hazards involving dangerous substances, [2007] OJ L 10/13, as amended.
 
41
Directive 2011/92/EU of 13 December 2011 on the assessment of the effects of certain public and private projects on the environment, [2012] OJ L 26/1.
 
42
Regulation No. 1907/2006 of 18 December 2006 concerning the Registration, Evaluation, Authorisation and Restriction of Chemicals (REACH), establishing a European Chemicals Agency, amending certain Directives, [2006] OJ L 396/1.
 
43
Directive 92/43/EEC of 21 May 1992 on the conservation of natural habitats and of wild fauna and flora, [1992] OJ L 206/7, as amended and Directive 2009/147/EC of 30 November 2009 on the conservation of wild birds, [2010] OJ L 20/7.
 
44
Directive 2000/60/EC of 23 October 2000 establishing a framework for Community action in the field of water policy, [2000] OJ L 327/1.
 
45
Directive 2006/118/EC on the protection of groundwater against pollution and deterioration, [2006] OJ L372/49.
 
46
Such as Philippe and Partners (2011), Forster and Perks (2012) and Ballesteros et al. (2013).
 
47
See DECC (2013), p. 14.
 
48
Schrijver (2008); we refer to this contribution for an elaborate overview of the history of the principle of permanent sovereignty over natural resources.
 
49
United Nations, General Assembly Resolution 1314 [XIII], “Recommendations concerning international respect for the right of peoples and nations to self-determination”, 12 December 1958.
 
50
United Nations, General Assembly Resolution 1803 [XVII], “Recommendations concerning international respect for the right of peoples and nations to self-determination”, 14 December 1962.
 
51
Schrijver (2008).
 
52
Barral (2016), p. 3.
 
53
Desta (2016), p. 128.
 
54
Schrijver (2008).
 
55
Resolution adopted by the General Assembly on 25 September 2015, United Nations, A/RES/70/1.
 
56
Ibid., p. 19.
 
57
Rules generally protect investors against (in)direct expropriation, discrimination, and require host states to accord “fair and equitable treatment” under a “minimum standard of treatment” provision. The open character of some of these norms is often criticized as providing arbitral tribunals with too much room for interpretation and the reform of investment protection chapters typically includes efforts to more clearly define the content of such open norms.
 
58
Lone Pine Resources Inc v Canada, Notice of Intent to Submit a Claim to Arbitration Under Chapter 11 of the North American Free Trade Agreement (8 November 2012) www.​italaw.​com/​sites/​default/​files/​case-documents/​italaw1156.​pdf.
 
59
Lone Pine Resources Inc v Canada, Notice of Intent to Submit a Claim to Arbitration Under Chapter 11 of the North American Free Trade Agreement (8 November 2012), para. 3, www.​italaw.​com/​sites/​default/​files/​case-documents/​italaw1156.​pdf.
 
60
Lone Pine Resources Inc v Canada, Claimant’s Reply to the Submissions of the United States of America and Mexico Pursuant to Article 1128 of the NAFTA (22 September 2017), para. 8.
 
61
Lone Pine Resources Inc v Canada, Claimant’s Memorial (10 April 2015), paras. 187–188 (footnotes omitted).
 
62
Lone Pine Resources Inc v Canada, Claimant’s Reply (Redacted) (22 July 2017), para. 256 (footnotes omitted).
 
63
Lone Pine Resources Inc v Canada, Claimant’s Reply (Redacted) (22 July 2017), para. 279 (footnotes omitted).
 
64
Grabowski (2014).
 
66
Pac Rim Cayman LLC v. Republic of El Salvador, Award, Para. 9.15.
 
67
Pac Rim Cayman LLC v. Republic of El Salvador, Award, Para. 8.44.
 
68
Lone Pine Resources Inc v Canada, Claimant’s Memorial (10 April 2015), para. 227 (footnotes omitted).
 
69
Lone Pine Resources Inc v Canada, Claimant’s Memorial (10 April 2015), para. 236.
 
70
Lone Pine Resources Inc v Canada, Claimant’s Memorial (10 April 2015), para. 259.
 
71
Lone Pine Resources Inc v Canada, Claimant’s Memorial (10 April 2015), para. 270.
 
72
Lone Pine Resources Inc v Canada, Claimant’s Reply (Redacted) (22 July 2017), para. 443.
 
73
Lone Pine Resources Inc v Canada, Claimant’s Memorial (10 April 2015), paras. 280–322.
 
74
Lone Pine Resources Inc v Canada, Claimant’s Reply (Redacted) (22 July 2017), para. 567 and preceding paras.
 
75
ICSID, Case Details: Lone Pine Resources Inc. v. Canada (ICSID Case No. UNCT/15/2), available at https://​icsid.​worldbank.​org/​en/​Pages/​cases/​casedetail.​aspx?​CaseNo=​UNCT/​15/​2 (last accessed at 30 April 2018).
 
76
Viñuales (2015), p. 12.
 
77
Desta (2016), p. 118.
 
78
Republic of Tanzania (2017), Natural Wealth and Resources (Permanent Sovereignty) Act, 2017. Available at http://​www.​tcme.​or.​tz/​resources/​view/​the-natural-wealth-and-resources-permanent-sovereignty-act-2017; Republic of Tanzania (2017), Natural Wealth and Resources Contracts (Review and Re-negotiation of Unconscionable Terms) Act, 2017. Available at http://​www.​tcme.​or.​tz/​resources/​view/​the-natural-wealth-and-resources-contracts-review-and-re-negotiation-of-unc; Republic of Tanzania (2017), Written Laws (Miscellaneous Amendments) Act, 2017. Available at http://​www.​tcme.​or.​tz/​resources/​view/​the-written-laws-miscellaneous-amendments-act-2017 (all last accessed at 30 April 2018).
 
79
See UNCTAD Investment Policy Hub, Bilateral Investment Treaties, available at http://​investmentpolicy​hub.​unctad.​org/​IIA/​CountryBits/​222 (last accessed at 30 April 2018).
 
80
Masamba (2017).
 
81
Ibid.
 
82
Lexology, Allen & Overy—New laws create potential for arbitration claims against Tanzania, 5 September 2017. Lexology, Winston & Strawn LLP—Tanzania’s Legal Reform of the Natural Resources Sector Threatens Extractive Industries, 1 August 2017. Lexology, Jones Day—Tanzania Overhauls Mining Laws, Fines Investor US$190 Billion: Is Your Investment Protected?, 5 August 2017.
 
83
USTR, Press Statement in Arlington, Virginia, 19 October 2017. Reported here https://​insidetrade.​com/​trade/​his-own-words-lighthizer-lets-loose-business-hill-opposition-isds-sunset-clause (last accessed 30 April 2018). See also, US House of Representatives, Committee on Ways and Means—Hearing on U.S. Trade Policy Agenda, The Honorable Robert E. Lighthizer, 21 March 2018, p. 20; available at https://​waysandmeans.​house.​gov/​wp-content/​uploads/​2018/​05/​20180321FC-Transcript.​pdf, pp. 20–21.
 
85
Hoffmeister (2017).
 
86
Reinisch (2017), p. 295.
 
87
ECJ, Opinion 2/15 of the Court, 16 May 2017, para. 282.
 
88
Geraets and Reins (2016), p. 18.
 
89
Desta (2016), p. 143.
 
Literatur
Ballesteros M, Pelsy F, Reins L (2013) Regulatory provisions governing key aspects of unconventional gas extraction in selected Member States. Milieu Ltd, Brussels 78 pp
Barral V (2016) National sovereignty over natural resources, environmental challenges and sustainable development. In: Morgera E, Kulovesi K (eds) Research handbook on international law and natural resources. Edward Elgar, London, pp 3–25CrossRef
Beaudoin Y, Serry JK (2010) Shale gas development in Canada: the regulatory framework. Society of Petroleum Engineers, Richardson
Carter AV, Eaton EM (2016) Subnational responses to fracking in Canada: explaining Saskatchewan’s “Wild West” regulatory approach. Rev Policy Res 33:393–419CrossRef
Desta MG (2016) Competition for natural resources and international investment law: analysis from the perspective of Africa. In: Yihdego Z et al (eds) Ethiopian yearbook of international law. Springer, Cham, p 128
DG for Internal Policies European Parliament (2011) Impacts of shale gas and shale oil extraction on the environment and on human health. European Parliament, Brussels
Financial Times (2018) US shale groups reach self-financing milestone, 23 Apr 2018
Fleming R (2013) Shale gas - a comparison of European moratoria. Eur Energy Environ Law Rev 22(1):12–32CrossRef
Forster D, Perks J (2012) Climate impact of potential shale gas production in the EU. AEA Consulting
Frenz W, Müggenborg H-J, Cosack T, Hennig B, Schomerus T (2018) Erneuerbare Energien Gesetz - EEG. Erich-Schmidt-Verlag, Berlin, p 2037
Geraets D, Reins L (2016) The case of shale gas extraction regulation in light of CETA and TTIP: another example of the frackmentation of international law. Environ Liabil 24(1):16–25
Goldthau A, Sovacool BK (2016) Energy technology, politics, and interpretative frames: shale gas fracking in Eastern Europe. Glob Environ Polit 16(4):50–69CrossRef
Grabowski A (2014) The definition of investment under the ICSID Convention: a defense of Salini. Chicago J Int Law 15(1):287–309
Hoffmeister F (2017) Bilateral developments in EU trade policy seven years after Lisbon: A look into the Spaghetti-Bowl à la Bruxelloise (2010–2016). In: Bungenberg M et al (eds) European yearbook of international economic law, vol 8. Springer, Heidelberg, pp 428–429
Meißner F, Naumenko D (2011) Non-conventional gas regulation in Europe: implications for Ukraine. Institute for Economic Research and Policy Consulting, Berlin and Kyiv1
Middleton RS, Gupta R, Hyman JD, Viswanathan HS (2017) The shale gas revolution: barriers, sustainability, and emerging opportunities. Appl Energy 199:88–95CrossRef
Orlen (2010) Shale gas - basic information.
Philippe and Partners (2011) Final report on unconventional gas in Europe - in the framework of the multiple framework service contract for legal assistance. Philippe & Partners, Brussels
Reinisch A (2017) The EU and investor-state dispute settlement: WTO litigators going “investor-state arbitration” and back to a permanent “investment court”. In: Bungenberg M et al (eds) European yearbook of international economic law, vol 8. Springer, Heidelberg, p 295
Rivard C, Lavoie D, Lefebvre R, Séjourné S, Lamontagne C, Duchesne M (2014) An overview of Canadian shale gas production and environmental concerns. Int J Coal Geol 126:64–76CrossRef
Schomerus T, Maly C (2017) Offshore wind-farm regulation in Germany. In: Ming-Zhi Gao A, Fan C-T (eds) The development of a comprehensive legal framework for the promotion of offshore wind power. Energy and environmental law and policy series, vol 33. Wolters Kluwer, Alphen aan den Rijn
Schomerus T (2018) Klimaschutz- und Umweltenergierecht. In: Rehbinder E, Schink A (eds) Grundzüge des Umweltrechts. Erich-Schmidt-Verlag, Berlin, pp 639–714
Schrijver NK (2008) Natural resources, permanent sovereignty over. Oxford Public International Law (OPIL), Max Planck Encyclopedia of Public International Law. Accessed 30 Apr 2018
Sinding K (2013) Fracking: state and local regulatory issues. Emerging issues in shale gas development webinar series. Yale Center for Environmental Law and Policy, New Haven
U.S. Energy Information Administration (2013) Technically recoverable shale oil and shale gas resources: an assessment of 137 shale formations in 41 countries outside the United States. Analysis and Projections, 13 June 2013
Viñuales JE (2015) International investment law and natural resource governance. The E15 Initiative
Whitton J, Brasier K, Parry I, Cotton M (2017) Shale gas governance in the United Kingdom and the United States: opportunities for public participation and the implications for social justice. Energy Res Soc Sci 26:11–22CrossRef
Metadaten
Titel
Fracking, Sovereignty over Natural Resources and International Investment Law
verfasst von
Leonie Reins
Dylan Geraets
Thomas Schomerus
Copyright-Jahr
2019
Verlag
Springer International Publishing
Buch
European Yearbook of International Economic Law 2018

Print ISBN: 978-3-319-97751-5

Electronic ISBN: 978-3-319-97752-2

Copyright-Jahr: 2019

DOI
https://doi.org/10.1007/8165_2018_7