Fragmented Local Government Systems and Crises

The decentralisation and fragmentation of local governments have been studied in a broad range of social sciences (Goodman, 2015; Xin & Chen, 2023). Approaches to decentralisation have differed in the reforms focused on transferring powers, responsibilities, and resources from the central government level to elected authorities at the subnational level for a wide variety of political, historical, and economic reasons (OECD, 2019). Local government systems have been described as ‘fragmented’ (and as ‘not consolidated’) when they have a large number of local governments (Goodman, 2015) and when local areas have multiple or even many local government units (e.g., Schneider, 1986; Goodman, 2019), usually measured in absolute or per capita terms. Sometimes, the term ‘fragmented’ is used to describe situations when excessive numbers of local government units exist, and adjectives like ‘high’, ‘excessive’, and ‘extreme’ are added to emphasise the level of fragmentation (e.g., Martinez-Vazquez & Gomez-Reino, 2011; Škarica, 2021; Hoffmann-Martinot, 2003). Horizontal and vertical fragmentation are usually differentiated: horizontal fragmentation relates to the number of units within the same tier of local government, and vertical fragmentation is considered closer to the notion of decentralisation and refers to the multi-level structure of local government and the distribution of responsibilities across its units (Goodman, 2019; Jong et al., 2021). The term ‘fragmentation’ may be used not only for referring to the high number of local governments but also to the processes that lead to fragmentation (i.e., splitting administrative units into a larger number of smaller units) (Grossman et al., 2017). There are mixed opinions on which local government systems are ‘fragmented’ and which are ‘territorially consolidated’ (Swianiewicz, 2002).

This chapter explores the evolution of municipal structures across Europe, focusing on post–Second World War amalgamation trends and their implications. It analyses the interplay between municipal size and citizen trust, and offers comparative case studies of amalgamation in Denmark, Finland, Greece and Saxony. The chapter critically evaluates policy outcomes, including efficiency gains and democratic deficits, and highlights how historical and institutional contexts shape territorial reforms. It warns against simplistic comparisons and emphasises the need to consider both administrative efficiency and local democratic engagement when assessing amalgamation outcomes.

Drawing on a systematic literature review, this chapter assesses how decentralisation and local government fragmentation affect crisis management. It identifies intra-organisational and external factors influencing municipal resilience, particularly during the COVID-19 pandemic and financial crises. The review highlights the benefits of local proximity and autonomy but also notes coordination and resource limitations. Special focus is given to highly fragmented EU countries.

This chapter examines how extreme horizontal fragmentation affects Czech municipalities under non-crisis conditions. Using mixed methods, the authors analyse correlations between municipal size and financial health, service provision, and quality of life. The findings indicate that smaller municipalities face structural disadvantages, especially in service delivery and regulatory compliance. However, intermunicipal cooperation emerges as a promising solution. The chapter contributes to the international debate on optimal local government structure by providing empirical evidence from one of Europe’s most fragmented systems and raising critical questions about the long-term sustainability of such fragmentation.

Focusing on municipalities with fewer than 2000 residents, this chapter investigates local responses to the COVID-19 crisis in Czechia. Based on interviews with mayors, it highlights challenges related to unclear guidance, limited state support, and coordination deficits. Despite this, small municipalities demonstrated adaptability, strong community engagement, and informal support networks. Topics include education, citizen communication, and community cohesion. The study reveals that while systemic weaknesses persisted, local leadership and proximity enabled flexible, context-sensitive responses, offering valuable insights into the crisis resilience of small-scale governance structures.

This chapter explores how small Czech municipalities coped with the rapid influx of Ukrainian refugees following Russia’s 2022 invasion. Drawing on qualitative interviews, it categorises municipal responses by prior migration experience, local capacity, and engagement with stakeholders. Challenges included housing, education, and communication, compounded by limited state coordination. Yet municipalities mobilised local networks and informal support effectively. The findings highlight both the strengths and vulnerabilities of highly decentralised systems in managing humanitarian crises and underline the need for improved intergovernmental collaboration and preparedness at the local level.

We are approaching the end of our book and our only remaining task is to summarise the main messages and future aims. As we outlined in the introduction, we wanted this book to contribute in particular to the literature interlinking crises and small municipalities. We wanted to explore, analyse, and discuss how crises are addressed in highly fragmented local government systems, with a significant part of the book dedicated to Czechia. Our motivations included the fact that, compared to literature published in the pre-pandemic period, little attention has been paid to small municipalities in the post-pandemic literature, although they were also impacted by the COVID-19 crisis and needed to cope with it. Then, almost immediately after the COVID-19 pandemic, some European countries were seriously affected by the crisis caused by migration from Ukraine. Somehow, public administration and public management literature seem to have forgotten the topic of small municipalities and their role in crises and in building resilience and robustness. In order to meet the goals outlined in the introduction to this book, we also needed to consider discussions and findings regarding the effects of fragmentation and consolidation in normal (non-crisis) times, because we wanted to discuss them in relation to our findings on small municipalities dealing with crises. The early chapters of this book summarised the existing knowledge outlining the impacts of fragmentation and consolidation in Europe and the research findings on the effects of local government fragmentation in normal situations in Czechia.