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2016 | OriginalPaper | Buchkapitel

8. Free Trade Agreements and Natural Resources

verfasst von : Junji Nakagawa

Erschienen in: Emerging Issues in Sustainable Development

Verlag: Springer Japan

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Abstract

This chapter focuses on the provisions of FTAs on natural resources. Natural resources have several unique economic characteristics, including their uneven geographical distribution, exhaustibility and market volatility, and these characteristics often motivate policy intervention in trade and investment in natural resources, such as export taxes, export restrictions and subsidies. As the rules of the WTO law are inadequate in disciplining some of these policy interventions, some FTAs try to fill the gap through trade- and/or investment related provisions focusing on natural resources. The chapter explores the compatibility of such provisions of FTAs on natural resources with the WTO law, and their implications in international trade and investment law. Rather than conducting a comprehensive survey, it takes up several FTAs in the Asia Pacific region that has specific chapters on energy and mineral resources. Finally, it analyzes provisions of the TPP (Trans-Pacific Partnership) on fisheries subsidies.

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Vorheriges Kapitel Reforming WTO Discipline on Export Duties: Sovereignty Over Natural Resources, Economic Development and Environmental Protection

Nächstes Kapitel Comment to Chapter “Free Trade Agreements and Natural Resources”

In this chapter, we define natural resources as “stocks of materials that exist in the natural environment that are both scarce and economically useful in production or consumption, either in their raw state or after a minimal amount of processing”. See WTO (2010), p. 46.

On the discipline of export duties under the rules of the WTO, see the contribution of Gabrielle Marceau in this volume, infra Chapter XX.

See Hardin (1968).

See Rios Herrán and Poretti (2012), pp. 340–41.

Article 27, paragraph 4 provides that “[i]n the Nation is vested the direct ownership of … petroleum and all solid, liquid, and gaseous hydrocarbons; …”. The English translation of the text of the Mexican Constitution of 1917 is available at http://www.latinamericanstudies.org/mexico/1917-Constitution.htm. Accessed 31 January 2016.

See Rios Herrán and Poretti (2012), pp. 343–44.

The text of the Canada-US FTA is available at http://www.international.gc.ca/trade-agreements-accords-commerciaux/assets/pdfs/cusfta-e.pdf. Accessed 31 January 2016. Chapter 9 consists of nine articles, as follows. Article 901: Scope, Article 902: Import and Export Restrictions, Article 903: Export Taxes, Article 904: Other Export Measures, Article 905: Regulatory and Other Measures, Article 906: Government Incentives for Energy Resource Development, Article 907: National Security Measures, Article 908: International Obligations, and Article 909: Definitions.

See Rios Herrán and Poretti (2012), pp. 356–57.

See ibid., p. 357.

They are HS subheadings 2612.10, 27.01 through 27.06, 2707.50, 2707.99, 27.08 and 27.09, 27.10, 27.11, 27.12 through 27.16, 2844.10 through 2844.50, 2845.10, and 2901.10.

See Rios Herrán and Poretti (2012), pp. 358–59.

Annex 602.3, para.5 enlists three exceptions to this reservation. Foreign investment is allowed in (1) generation of electricity for own use of an enterprise, (2) co-generation of electricity using energy sources associated with an industrial process, and (3) independent power production (IPP). The surplus electric power, however, shall be sold to the CFE (Comisión Federal de Electricidad), a Mexican state-owned electricity enterprise. See Annex 602.3, para.5.

See Rios Herrán and Poretti (2012), p. 360.

See Annex 603.6.

Article 1502 allows Parties to designate monopolies. Monopolies, however, shall “act solely in accordance with commercial considerations in the purchase or sale of the monopoly good or service”. See Article 1502.3(b).

See Annex 603.6.

See Article 605(a).

See Watkins (1999), pp. 5–6.

See Article 605(b).

See Article 605(c).

See Annex 605.

See Rios Herrán and Poretti (2012), pp. 364–66.

See Annex 607.

See Seelke et al. (2015), p. 4.

See ibid., p. 5.

Probable reserves are those which have a 50 % chance of being present. See Society of Petroleum Engineers, Petroleum Reserves Definitions. Available at http://www.spe.org/industry/petroleum-reserves-definitions.php. Accessed 31 January 2016.

See Seelke et al. (2015), p. 7.

See id.

The text of the TPP is available at either https://ustr.gov/trade-agreements/free-trade-agreements/trans-pacific-partnership/tpp-full-text or https://www.mfat.govt.nz/en/about-us/who-we-are/treaty-making-process/trans-pacific-partnership-tpp/text-of-the-trans-pacific-partnership. Accessed 31 January 2016.

Signed June 15, 2007, entered into force 31 July 2008.

Signed August 10, 2007, entered into force 1 July 2008. Its English text is available at http://www.mofa.go.jp/region/asia-paci/indonesia/epa0708/index.html. Accessed 31 January 2016.

Signed 8 July 2014, entered into force 15 January 2015. Its English text is available at http://www.mofa.go.jp/ecm/ep/page22e_000430.html. Accessed 31 January 2016.

“Risk sharing measures” means any measures by Indonesia to support investment by Japanese investors relating to infrastructure of Indonesia, of either financial or non-financial nature. See Note to Annex 12, Japan-Indonesia EPA.

Joint Study for Enhancing Economic Relations between Japan and Australia, including the Feasibility or Pros and Cons of a Free Trade Agreement, Final Report, December 2006. Available at http://www.mofa.go.jp/region/asia-paci/australia/joint0612.pdf. Accessed 31 January 2016.

Ibid., pp. 13–14.

They are nickel, aluminium and cobalt.

See item (iv) of the provisions suggested by the study group, in Sect. 3.2 of this chapter.

See Article 14.19.2 of the Japan-Australia EPA, which provides that the Parties shall conduct a review of the Chapter 14 if Australia enters into any multilateral or bilateral international agreement providing for an ISDS mechanism, with a view to establishing an equivalent mechanism under the Japan-Australia EPA.

Doha Ministerial Declaration, 14 November 2001, para.28. Available at https://www.wto.org/english/thewto_e/minist_e/min01_e/mindecl_e.htm. Accessed 31 January 2016.

See Young (2011), p. 87.

Ibid., p. 87–88.

For an overview of international regimes on fisheries subsidies, see Nakagawa (2010), pp. 36–40. Also see Chen (2010), pp. 18–28.

FAO, International Plan of Action for the Management of Fishing Capacity, adopted by the FAO Committee on Fisheries in February 1999 and endorsed by the FAO Council in June 1999. Its text is available at ftp://ftp.fao.org/docrep/fao/006/x3170e/X3170E00.pdf, pp. 19–26. Accessed 31 January 2016.

Ibid., para.25.

See WTO Committee on Trade and Environment, GATT/WTO Rules on Subsidies and Aids Granted in the Fishing Industry, Note by the Secretariat, WT/CTE/W/80, 9 March 1998.

See, for instance, Australia, Iceland, New Zealand, the Philippines and the US, Joint Statement titled “Promote Sustainable Development by Eliminating Trade Distorting and Environmentally Damaging Fisheries Subsidies”, issued at the High Level Symposia on Trade and Development and Trade and Environment in March 1999, reproduced in Annex I of WT/CTE/W/12s, 28 June 1999, pp. 6–7.

See WTO Committee on Trade and Environment, Environmental Benefits of Removing Trade Restrictions and Distortions: The Fisheries Sector, Note by the Secretatiat, WT/CTE/W/167, 16 October 2000, papra.37–47.

See Nakagawa (2010), pp. 41–44 on the details of the negotiations. Also see Chen (2010), Chapter 2.

Members of the “Friends of Fish” included Australia, Chile, Ecuador, Iceland, New Zealand, Peru, Philippines and the US.

WTO Negotiating Group on Rules, Draft Consolidated Text of the AD and SCM Agreements, Annex VIII Fisheries Subsidies, TN/RL/W/213, 30 November 2007, pp. 87–93.

The following eight categories of subsidies were prohibited: (1) subsidies on the acquisition and repair of fishing vessels, (2) subsidies on transfer of fishing vessels to third countries, (3) subsidies on operating costs of fishing vessels, (4) subsidies for port infrastructure exclusively or predominantly related to marine capture fishing, (5) income support for natural or legal persons engaged in marine capture fishing, (6) price support for products of marine capture fishing, (7) subsidies arising from the transfer of access rights, and (8) subsidies on any fishing vessel engaged in illegal, unreported or unregulated fishing (IUU fishing). See ibid., Article I.1.

They were the following five categories of general exceptions: (1) subsidies for improving fishing vessel and crew safety, (2) subsidies exclusively for the adoption of gear for selective fishing techniques or other techniques aimed at reducing the environmental impact of marine capture fishing, (3) subsidies for re-education, retraining or redeployment of fish workers into occupations unrelated to marine capture fishing, (4) subsidies for vessel decommissioning or capacity reduction programs, and (5) user-specific allocations to individuals and groups under exclusive quota programs. See ibid., Article II.

See Nakagawa (2010), pp. 48–49.

WTO News Release, Chair outlines future work in Rules negotiations, 14 July 2008. Available at https://www.wto.org/english/news_e/news08_e/rules_14july08_e.htm. Accessed 31 January 2016.

WTO Negotiating Group on Rules, New Draft Consolidated Chair Texts of the AD and SCM Agreements, Annex VIII Fisheries Subsidies – Roadmap for Discussions, TN/RL/W/236, 19 December 2008, p. 85.

See Cho (2015), pp. 11–12.

For the US’ negotiating position on fisheries subsidies, see Office of the United States Trade Representative, The Trans-Pacific Partnership: Detailed Summary of US Objectives, September 2015, p. 18 (It says, as one of the US negotiating objectives, to “(e)stablish rules to prohibit some of the most harmful fisheries subsidies, such as those that contribute to overfishing”.) Available at https://ustr.gov/sites/default/files/TPP-Detailed-Summary-of-US-Objectives.pdf. Accessed 31 January 2016. Also see Fergusson et al. (2015), pp. 40–41.

The legally verified text of the TPP was released on 26 January 2016 and is available at https://tpp.mfat.govt.nz/text. Accessed 31 January 2016.

Footnote 12 to Article 20 lists examples of such international agreements as follows: UN Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS), the UN Fish Stocks Agreement of 1995, the 1995 FAO Code of Conduct for Responsible Fisheries, the FAO Compliance Agreement of 1993, and the 2001 FAO IPOA-IUU Fishing. For the details of these international agreements, see Nakagawa (2010), pp. 31–37.

Footnotes 15 and 16 to Chapter 20 clarify these requirements. Footnote 15 provides that the negative effect of such subsidies shall be determined based on the best scientific evidence available. Footnote 16 provides that a fish stock is overfished if the stock is at such a low level that mortality from fishing needs to be restricted to allow the stock to rebuild to a level that produces maximum sustainable yield (MSY) based on the best scientific evidence available.

See Nihon Keizai Shimbun electronic edition, 17 October 2015, available at http://www.nikkei.com/article/DGXLASFS16H5Y_W5A011C1PP8000/. Accessed 31 January 2016.

Footnote 20 of Chapter 20 lists examples of such regional and international instruments as follows: the 2001 IPOA-IUU Fishing, the 2005 Rome Declaration on IUU Fishing, the Agreement on Port State Measures to Prevent, Deter and Eliminate Illegal, Unreported and Unregulated Fishing, done at Rome, 22 November 2009.

Port State measures to address IUU fishing are provided by the 2009 Agreement on Port State Measures to Prevent, Deter and Eliminate IUU fishing, as mentioned in footnote 20 of Chapter 20. The measures include inspection and follow-up actions. See Articles 12–19 of the Agreement. The text of the 2009 Agreement is available at http://www.fao.org/3/a-i1644t.pdf. Accessed 31 January 2016.

It must be noted, however, that the NAFTA chapter on energy and basic petrochemicals is practically a bilateral agreement between Canada and the US, as Mexico was exempted from most of the obligations under the chapter.

On standard-setting through FTAs, see Nakagawa (2009), pp. 79–83.

Chen, C.-J. (2010). Fisheries subsidies under International Law. Berlin: Springer.CrossRef

Cho, Y. (2015). Revisiting WTO fisheries subsidies negotiations. Beijing Law Review, 6, 9–15.CrossRef

Fergusson, I. F., McMinimy, M. A., & Williams, B. R. (2015). The Trans-Pacific Partnership (TPP) negotiations and issues for Congress, Congressional Research Service, CRS Report R.42694. Available at https://www.fas.org/sgp/crs/row/R42694.pdf. Accessed 31 Jan 2016.

Hardin, G. (1968). The tragedy of the commons. Science, 162, 1243–1248.CrossRef

Herrán, R., & Poretti, P. (2012). Energy trade and investment under the North American Free Trade Agreement. In Y. Selivanova (Ed.), Regulation of Energy in International Trade Law (pp. 335–371). Alphen aan den Rijn: Wolters Kluwer.

Nakagawa, J. (2009). Competitive regionalism through bilateral and regional rule-making: Standard setting and locking-in. In M. Solís, B. Stallings, & S. N. Katada (Eds.), Competitive regionalism: FTA diffusion in the Pacific Rim (pp. 74–93). Basingstoke: Palgrave MacMillan.CrossRef

Nakagawa, J. (2010). The Doha round negotiations on fisheries subsidies and the regime for the conservation and management of marine living resources. Boeki to Kanzei (Trade and Tariffs), 58(9), 30–60. (in Japanese).

Seelke, C. R., Ratner, M., Villarreal, M. A., & Brown, P. (2015). Mexico’s oil and gas sector: Background, reform efforts, and implications for the United States, Congressional Research Service, CRS Report R43313. Available at https://www.fas.org/sgp/crs/row/R43313.pdf. Accessed 31 Jan 2016.

Watkins, G. C. (1999). NAFTA and energy: A bridge not far enough? The Fraser Institute. Available at http://oldfraser.lexi.net/publications/books/assess_nafta/energy.html. Accessed 31 Jan 2016.

WTO. (2010). World trade report 2010: Trade in natural resources. Geneva: WTO.

Young, M. A. (2011). Trading fish, saving fish: The interaction between regimes in International Law. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.CrossRef

Titel: Free Trade Agreements and Natural Resources
verfasst von: Junji Nakagawa
Verlag: Springer Japan
Buch: Emerging Issues in Sustainable Development
Print ISBN: 978-4-431-56424-9

Electronic ISBN: 978-4-431-56426-3

Copyright-Jahr: 2016
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-4-431-56426-3_8

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